More tests and starting a blog post

Author: odersky

docs/blog/_posts/2016-12-05-implicit-function-types.md

@@ -0,0 +1,170 @@
+---
+layout: blog
+title: Implicit Function Types
+author: Martin Odersky
+authorImg: /images/martin.jpg
+---
+
+I just made the first pull request to add _implicit function types_ to
+Scala. I am pretty excited about it, because, citing the explanation
+of the pull request "This is the first step to bring comonadic
+abstraction to Scala". That's quite a mouthful, so I better explain what I
+mean by it.
+
+Let me try to explain the words in this sentence from right to left.
+
+*Scala*: I assume everyone who reads this understands that we mean the
+ programming language, not the opera house.
+
+*Abstraction*: The ability to name a concept and use just the name afterwards.
+
+*Comonadic*: In category theory, a _comonad_ is the dual of a
+_monad_. Roughly speaking, a monad is a way to wrap the result (or:
+outputs) of a computation in some other type. For instance
+`Future[T]` means that the result of type `T` will be produced at
+some later time on demand, or `Option[T]` indicates that the result
+might also be undefined.
+
+Dually, a _comonad_ allows to transform or
+enrich or otherwise manipulate the _inputs_ to a computation.
+The inputs are typically what a computation can access in its
+environment. Interesting tasks that are by nature comonadic are
+
+ - passing configuration data to the parts of a system that need them,
+ - managing capabilities for security critical tasks,
+ - wiring components up with dependency injection,
+ - defining the meanings of operations with type classes,
+ - more generally, passing any sort of context to a computation.
+
+Implicit function types are a suprisingly simple and general way to
+make coding patterns solving these tasks abstractable, reducing
+boilerplate code and increasing applicability.
+
+*First Step* My pull request is first implementation. In solves the
+ problem in principle, but it introduces some run-time overhead. The
+ next step will be to eliminate the run-time overhead through some
+ simple optimizations.
+
+
+## Comparison with Monads
+
+One can use monads for these tasks, and some people do. For instance
+the `Reader` monad is used to abstract over accessing one entry in the
+environment.  But the code for doing so quickly becomes complex and
+inefficient, in particular when combining several contextual
+accesses. Monads don't compose in general, and therefore even simple
+combinations need to be expressed on the level of monad transformers,
+at the price of much boilerplate and complexity. Recognizing this,
+peaple have recently experimented with free monads, which alleviate
+the composibility problem, but at the price of introducing a whole new
+level of interpretation.
+
+## Implicit Parameters
+
+In a functional setting, the inputs to a computation are most
+naturally expressed as _parameters_. One could simply augment
+functions to take additional parameters that represent configurations,
+capabilities, dictionaries, or whatever contextual data the functions
+need. The only downside with this is that often there's a large
+distance in the call graph between the definition of a contextual
+element and the site where it is used. Conseuqently, it becomes
+tedious to define all those intermediate parameters and to pass them
+along to where they are eventually consumed.
+
+Implicit parameters solve one half of the problem. Implicit
+parameters do not have to be propagated using boilerplate code; the
+compiler takes care of that. This makes them practical in many
+scenarios where plain parameters would be too cumbersome. For
+instance, type classes would be a lot less popular if one would have
+to pass all dictionaries by hand. Implicit parameters are also very
+useful as a general context passing mechanism. For instance in the
+_dotty_ compiler, almost every function takes an implicit context
+parameter which defines all elements relating to the current state of
+the compilation. This is in my experience much better than the cake
+pattern because it is lightweight and can express context changes in a
+purely functional way.
+
+The main downside of implicit parameters is the verbosity of their
+declaration syntax. It's hard to illustrate this with a smallish example,
+because it really only becomes a problem at scale, but let's try anyway.
+
+Let's say we want to write some piece of code that's designed to run
+in a transaction. For the sake of illustration here's a simple transaction class:
+
+    class Transaction {
+      private val log = new ListBuffer[String]
+      def println(s: String): Unit = log += s
+
+      private var aborted = false
+      private var committed = false
+
+      def abort(): Unit = { aborted = true }
+      def isAborted = aborted
+
+      def commit(): Unit =
+        if (!aborted && !committed) {
+          Console.println("******* log ********")
+          log.foreach(Console.println)
+          committed = true
+        }
+    }
+
+The transaction encapsulates a log, to which one can print messages.
+It can be in one of three states: running, committed, or aborted.
+If the transaction is committed, it prints the stored log to the console.
+
+The `transaction` method lets one run some given code `op` inside
+a newly created transaction:
+
+      def transaction[T](op: Transaction => T) = {
+        val trans: Transaction = new Transaction
+        op(trans)
+        trans.commit()
+      }
+
+The current transaction needs to be passed along a calling chain to all
+the places that need to access it. To illustrate this, here are three
+functions `f1`, `f2` and `f3` which call each other, and also access
+the current transaction. The most convenient way to achieve this is
+passing the current transaction as an implicit parameter.
+
+      def f1(x: Int)(implicit thisTransaction: Transaction): Int = {
+        thisTransaction.println(s"first step: $x")
+        f2(x + 1)
+      }
+      def f2(x: Int)(implicit thisTransaction: Transaction): Int = {
+        thisTransaction.println(s"second step: $x")
+        f3(x * x)
+      }
+      def f3(x: Int)(implicit thisTransaction: Transaction): Int = {
+        thisTransaction.println(s"third step: $x")
+        if (x % 2 != 0) thisTransaction.abort()
+        x
+      }
+
+The main program calls `f1` in a fresh transaction context and prints
+its result:
+
+      def main(args: Array[String]) = {
+        transaction {
+          implicit thisTransaction =>
+            val res = f1(args.length)
+            println(if (thisTransaction.isAborted) "aborted" else s"result: $res")
+        }
+      }
+
+Two sample calls of the program (let's call it `TransactionDemo`) are here:
+
+    scala TransactionDemo 1 2 3
+    result: 16
+    ******* log ********
+    first step: 3
+    second step: 4
+    third step: 16
+
+    scala TransactionDemo 1 2 3 4
+    aborted
+
+
+
+

tests/run/implicitFuns.scala

@@ -81,7 +81,7 @@ object Contextual {
 
   def runOn(f: java.io.File): Ctx[Int] = {
     val options = List("-verbose", "-explaintypes")
-    process(f)(ctx.withBinding(Options, options))
+    process(f).apply(ctx.withBinding(Options, options))
   }
 
   def process(f: java.io.File): Ctx[Int] =
@@ -94,3 +94,120 @@ object Contextual {
     assert(!compile("a"))
   }
 }
+
+import collection.mutable.ListBuffer
+
+class Transaction {
+  private val log = new ListBuffer[String]
+  def println(s: String): Unit = log += s
+
+  private var aborted = false
+  private var committed = false
+
+  def abort(): Unit = { aborted = true }
+  def isAborted = aborted
+
+  def commit(): Unit =
+    if (!aborted && !committed) {
+      Console.println("******* log ********")
+      log.foreach(Console.println)
+      committed = true
+    }
+}
+
+object TransactionalExplicit {
+
+  def transaction[T](op: Transaction => T) = {
+    val trans: Transaction = new Transaction
+    op(trans)
+    trans.commit()
+  }
+
+  def f1(x: Int)(implicit thisTransaction: Transaction): Int = {
+    thisTransaction.println(s"first step: $x")
+    f2(x + 1)
+  }
+  def f2(x: Int)(implicit thisTransaction: Transaction): Int = {
+    thisTransaction.println(s"second step: $x")
+    f3(x * x)
+  }
+  def f3(x: Int)(implicit thisTransaction: Transaction): Int = {
+    thisTransaction.println(s"third step: $x")
+    if (x % 2 != 0) thisTransaction.abort()
+    x
+  }
+
+  def main(args: Array[String]) = {
+    transaction {
+      implicit thisTransaction =>
+        val res = f1(args.length)
+        println(if (thisTransaction.isAborted) "aborted" else s"result: $res")
+    }
+  }
+}
+
+object Transactional {
+  type Transactional[T] = implicit Transaction => T
+
+  def transaction[T](op: Transactional[T]) = {
+    implicit val trans: Transaction = new Transaction
+    op
+    trans.commit()
+  }
+
+  def thisTransaction: Transactional[Transaction] = implicitly[Transaction]
+
+  def f1(x: Int): Transactional[Int] = {
+    thisTransaction.println(s"first step: $x")
+    f2(x + 1)
+  }
+  def f2(x: Int): Transactional[Int] = {
+    thisTransaction.println(s"second step: $x")
+    f3(x * x)
+  }
+  def f3(x: Int): Transactional[Int] = {
+    thisTransaction.println(s"third step: $x")
+    if (x % 2 != 0) thisTransaction.abort()
+    x
+  }
+
+  def main(args: Array[String]) = {
+    transaction {
+      val res = f1(args.length)
+      println(if (thisTransaction.isAborted) "aborted" else s"result: $res")
+    }
+  }
+}
+
+object TransactionalExpansion {
+
+  def transaction[T](op: Transaction => T) = {
+    val trans: Transaction = new Transaction
+    op.apply(trans)
+    trans.commit()
+  }
+
+  def thisTransaction = $t: Transaction => $t
+
+  def f1(x: Int) = { $t: Transaction =>
+    thisTransaction.apply($t).println(s"first step: $x")
+    f2(x + 1).apply($t)
+  }
+  def f2(x: Int) = { $t: Transaction =>
+    thisTransaction.apply($t).println(s"second step: $x")
+    f3(x * x).apply($t)
+  }
+  def f3(x: Int) = { $t: Transaction =>
+    thisTransaction.apply($t).println(s"third step: $x")
+    if (x % 2 != 0) thisTransaction.apply($t).abort()
+    x
+  }
+
+  def main(args: Array[String]) = {
+    transaction { $t =>
+      val res = f1(args.length).apply($t)
+      println(if (thisTransaction.apply($t).isAborted) "aborted" else s"result: $res")
+    }
+  }
+}
+