diff --git a/pom.xml b/pom.xml
index e66b725..efb68c4 100644
--- a/pom.xml
+++ b/pom.xml
@@ -7,6 +7,18 @@
     <groupId>io.zipcoder</groupId>
     <artifactId>collections</artifactId>
     <version>1.0-SNAPSHOT</version>
+    <build>
+        <plugins>
+            <plugin>
+                <groupId>org.apache.maven.plugins</groupId>
+                <artifactId>maven-compiler-plugin</artifactId>
+                <configuration>
+                    <source>1.8</source>
+                    <target>1.8</target>
+                </configuration>
+            </plugin>
+        </plugins>
+    </build>
 
     <dependencies>
         <dependency>
diff --git a/src/main/java/io/zipcoder/ParenChecker.java b/src/main/java/io/zipcoder/ParenChecker.java
index caee675..37216b1 100644
--- a/src/main/java/io/zipcoder/ParenChecker.java
+++ b/src/main/java/io/zipcoder/ParenChecker.java
@@ -1,4 +1,67 @@
 package io.zipcoder;
 
-public class ParenChecker {
+import java.util.Stack;
+
+public class ParenChecker
+{
+    public boolean containsPair(String inputString, Character openChar, Character closeChar)
+    {
+        Stack<Character> characterStack = new Stack<Character>();
+
+        for(int i = 0; i < inputString.length(); i++)
+        {
+            char currentChar = inputString.charAt(i);
+
+            if(currentChar == openChar)
+            {
+                characterStack.push(currentChar);
+                continue;
+            }
+
+            if (currentChar == closeChar)
+            {
+                if(characterStack.isEmpty())
+                {
+                    return false;
+                }
+
+                else if(characterStack.peek() == openChar)
+                {
+                    characterStack.push(closeChar);
+                }
+
+
+            }
+
+
+        }
+
+        return characterStack.empty() || (characterStack.size() % 2 == 0);
+    }
+
+    public boolean parenPair(String inputString)
+    {
+        if (containsPair(inputString, '(', ')'))
+        { return true;}
+
+        return false;
+    }
+
+    public boolean anyPair(String inputString)
+    {
+        if      (containsPair(inputString, '(', ')')&&
+                (containsPair(inputString, '<', '>')) &&
+                (containsPair(inputString, '[', ']'))&&
+                (containsPair(inputString, '{', '}'))&&
+                (containsPair(inputString, '\'', '\''))&&
+                (containsPair(inputString, '\"', '\"')))
+        {
+            return true;
+        }
+
+        return false;
+    }
+
+
+
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/io/zipcoder/WC.java b/src/main/java/io/zipcoder/WC.java
index babb68c..572069f 100644
--- a/src/main/java/io/zipcoder/WC.java
+++ b/src/main/java/io/zipcoder/WC.java
@@ -2,11 +2,11 @@
 
 import java.io.FileNotFoundException;
 import java.io.FileReader;
-import java.util.Iterator;
-import java.util.Scanner;
+import java.util.*;
 
 public class WC {
     private Iterator<String> si;
+    private LinkedHashMap<String, Integer> countWords;
 
     public WC(String fileName) {
         try {
@@ -15,9 +15,41 @@ public WC(String fileName) {
             System.out.println(fileName + " Does Not Exist");
             System.exit(-1);
         }
+
+        this.countWords = new LinkedHashMap<String, Integer>();
     }
 
+
     public WC(Iterator<String> si) {
         this.si = si;
     }
+
+    public void generateLinkedHashMap()
+    {
+        while (si.hasNext())
+        {
+            String nextWord = si.next().toLowerCase();
+
+            if(!countWords.containsKey(nextWord))
+            {
+                countWords.put(nextWord, 1);
+            }
+            else countWords.put(nextWord, countWords.get(nextWord) +1);
+        }
+    }
+
+    public StringBuilder printLinkedHashMap()
+    {
+        StringBuilder sbCount = new StringBuilder();
+        List<Map.Entry<String,Integer>> list = new ArrayList<>(countWords.entrySet());
+        list.sort(Comparator.comparing(Map.Entry::getValue));
+        Collections.reverse(list);
+
+        for (Map.Entry<String, Integer> entry : list)
+        {
+            sbCount.append(entry.getKey()).append(": ").append(entry.getValue()).append("\n");
+        }
+
+        return sbCount;
+    }
 }
diff --git a/src/main/resources/56734-0.txt b/src/main/resources/56734-0.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..00b0449
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/resources/56734-0.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,21195 @@
+Project Gutenberg's A Manual of Ancient History, by M. E. Thalheimer
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most
+other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
+whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of
+the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at
+www.gutenberg.org.  If you are not located in the United States, you'll have
+to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook.
+
+
+
+Title: A Manual of Ancient History
+
+Author: M. E. Thalheimer
+
+Release Date: March 13, 2018 [EBook #56734]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: UTF-8
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A MANUAL OF ANCIENT HISTORY ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Adrian Mastronardi and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was
+produced from images generously made available by The
+Internet Archive/Canadian Libraries)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+                                A MANUAL
+                                   OF
+                            ANCIENT HISTORY.
+
+                                   BY
+                            M. E. THALHEIMER,
+             _FORMERLY TEACHER OF HISTORY AND COMPOSITION IN
+            THE PACKER COLLEGIATE INSTITUTE, BROOKLYN, N. Y._
+
+                             [Illustration]
+
+                        VAN ANTWERP, BRAGG & CO.,
+
+                           137 WALNUT STREET,
+                               CINCINNATI.
+
+                             28 BOND STREET,
+                                NEW YORK.
+
+
+
+
+THALHEIMER’S HISTORICAL SERIES.
+
+    _Eclectic History of the United States._
+    _History of England._
+    _General History._
+    _Ancient History._
+    _Eastern Empires (separate)._
+    _History of Greece (separate)._
+    _History of Rome (separate)._
+    _Mediæval and Modern History._
+
+
+
+
+       Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1872, by
+                          WILSON, HINKLE & CO.,
+    In the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington, D. C.
+
+                             ECLECTIC PRESS:
+                        VAN ANTWERP, BRAGG & CO.,
+                               CINCINNATI.
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE.
+
+
+Several causes have lately augmented both the means and the motives for
+a more thorough study of History. Modern criticism, no longer accepting
+primitive traditions, venal eulogiums, partisan pamphlets, and highly
+wrought romances as equal and trustworthy evidence, merely because of
+their age, is teaching us to sift the testimony of ancient authors, to
+ascertain the sources and relative value of their information, and to
+discern those special aims which may determine the light in which their
+works should be viewed. The geographical surveys of recent travelers have
+thrown a flood of new light upon ancient events; and, above all, the
+inscriptions discovered and deciphered within half a century, have set
+before us the great actors of old times, speaking in their own persons
+from the walls of palaces and tombs.
+
+Nor is the new knowledge of little value. If we look familiarly into
+the daily life of our fellow-men thousands of years ago, it is to find
+them toiling at the same problems which perplex us; suffering the same
+conflict of passion and principle; failing, it may be, for our warning,
+or winning for our encouragement; in any case, reaching results which
+ought to prevent our repeating their mistakes. The national questions
+which fill our newspapers were discussed long ago in the Grove, the
+Agora, and the Forum; the relative advantages of government by the many
+and the few, were wrought out to a demonstration in the states and
+colonies of Greece; and no man whose vote, no woman whose influence,
+may sway in ever so small a degree the destinies of our Republic, can
+afford to be ignorant of what has already been so wisely and fully
+accomplished. Present tasks can only be clearly seen and worthily
+performed in the light of long experience; and that liberal acquaintance
+with History which, under a monarchical government, might safely be left
+as an ornament and privilege to the few, is here the duty of the many.
+
+The present work aims merely to afford a brief though accurate outline of
+the results of the labors of NIEBUHR, BUNSEN, ARNOLD, MOMMSEN, RAWLINSON,
+and others—results which have never, so far as we know, been embraced
+in any American school-book, but which within a few years have greatly
+increased the treasures of historical literature. While it may have
+been impossible, within our limits, to reproduce the full and life-like
+outlines in which they have portrayed the characters of ancient times, we
+have sought, with their aid, at least to ascertain the limits of fact and
+fable. With but few exceptions, and those clearly stated as such, we have
+introduced no narrative which can reasonably be doubted.
+
+The writer is more confident of justice of aim than of completeness of
+attainment. No one can so acutely feel the imperfections of a work like
+this, as the one who has labored at every point to avoid or to remove
+them; to compress the greatest amount of truth into the fewest words, and
+while reducing the scale, to preserve a just proportion in the details.
+To hundreds of former pupils, who have never been forgotten in this
+labor of love, and to the kind judgment of fellow-teachers—some of whom
+well know that effort has not been spared, even where ability may have
+failed—this Manual is respectfully submitted.
+
+                                          BROOKLYN, N. Y., _April, 1872_.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS.
+
+
+                                                                    PAGE
+
+                              INTRODUCTION.
+
+  Sources of History.                                                 9.
+
+  Dispersion of Races; Periods and Divisions of History.             10.
+
+  Auxiliary Sciences: Chronology and Geography.                      11.
+
+                                 BOOK I.
+
+       _Asiatic and African Nations, from the Dispersion at Babel
+                   to the Rise of the Persian Empire._
+
+                      PART I.—THE ASIATIC NATIONS.
+
+  View of the Geography of Asia.                                     13.
+
+  History of the Chaldæan Monarchy.                                  17.
+             The Assyrian Monarchy.                                  18.
+             The Median Monarchy.                                    22.
+             The Babylonian Monarchy.                                24.
+             Kingdoms of Asia Minor.                                 29.
+             Phœnicia.                                               30.
+             Syria.                                                  33.
+             Judæa.                                                  34.
+                 (_a_) Theocracy.                                    35.
+                 (_b_) United Monarchy.                              36.
+                 (_c_) The Kingdom of Israel.                        39.
+                 (_d_) The Kingdom of Judah.                         42.
+
+                      PART II.—THE AFRICAN NATIONS.
+
+  Geographical Outline of Africa.                                    48.
+
+  History of Egypt.                                                  50.
+      (_a_) The Old Empire.                                          51.
+      (_b_) The Shepherd Kings.                                      53.
+      (_c_) The New Empire.                                          55.
+
+  Religion and Ranks in Egypt.                                       61.
+
+  History of Carthage.                                               66.
+
+                                BOOK II.
+
+   _The Persian Empire, from the Rise of Cyrus to the Fall of Darius._
+
+  Career of Cyrus.                                                   73.
+
+  Reign of Cambyses.                                                 76.
+
+  Organization of the Empire by Darius I.                            79.
+
+  Invasions of Europe under Darius.                                  83.
+
+  The Behistûn Inscription.                                          87.
+
+  Invasion of Greece by Xerxes.                                      88.
+
+  Reign of Artaxerxes I. (_Longimanus_)                              92.
+           Xerxes II.                                                94.
+           Sogdianus; Darius II.                                     95.
+           Artaxerxes II. (_Mnemon_).                                96.
+           Artaxerxes III.; Arses.                                   98.
+           Darius III. (_Codomannus_).                               99.
+
+                                BOOK III.
+
+     _Grecian States and Colonies, from their Earliest Period to the
+                   Accession of Alexander the Great._
+
+  Geographical Outline of Greece.                                   105.
+
+  History of Greece.                                                107.
+
+                              FIRST PERIOD.
+
+  Traditional and Fabulous History, from the Earliest Times to
+      the Dorian Migrations.                                        107.
+
+  Greek Religion.                                                   110.
+
+                             SECOND PERIOD.
+
+  Authentic History, from the Dorian Conquest of the Peloponnesus
+      to the Persian Wars.                                          116.
+
+  Sparta.                                                           118.
+
+  Athens.                                                           124.
+
+  Grecian Colonies.                                                 130.
+
+                              THIRD PERIOD.
+
+  From the Beginning of the Persian Wars to the Macedonian
+      Supremacy.                                                    134.
+
+  Invasions by Mardonius and Datis.                                 134.
+
+  The Battle of Marathon.                                           135.
+
+  Invasion by Xerxes; Battle of Thermopylæ.                    138, 139.
+
+  Battle of Salamis, and Retreat of Xerxes.                         141.
+
+  Battles of Platæa and Mycale.                                     144.
+
+  Hellenic League, and Greatness of Athens.                         145.
+
+  The Peloponnesian War.                                            161.
+
+  The Sicilian Expedition.                                          169.
+
+  Decline of Athens.                                                175.
+
+  Battle of Ægos-Potami, and Fall of Athens.                        179.
+
+  Spartan Supremacy. The Thirty Tyrants.                            181.
+
+  The Corinthian War.                                               184.
+
+  Peace of Antalcidas.                                              187.
+
+  Theban Supremacy.                                                 188.
+
+  Theban Invasions of the Peloponnesus.                         192-195.
+
+  The Social War.                                                   195.
+
+  The Sacred War.                                                   196.
+
+  Battle of Chæronea. Supremacy of Philip of Macedon.               197.
+
+                                BOOK IV.
+
+     _History of the Macedonian Empire, and the Kingdoms formed from
+                it, until their Conquest by the Romans._
+
+                              FIRST PERIOD.
+
+  From the Rise of the Monarchy to the Death of Alexander the
+     Great.                                                         201.
+
+                             SECOND PERIOD.
+
+  From the Death of Alexander to the Battle of Ipsus.               206.
+
+                              THIRD PERIOD.
+
+  History of the Several Kingdoms into which Alexander’s Empire
+      was Divided.                                                  209.
+
+  Syrian Kingdom of the Seleucidæ.                                  209.
+
+  Egypt under the Ptolemies.                                        216.
+
+  Macedonia and Greece.                                             222.
+
+  Thrace; Pergamus.                                                 230.
+
+  Bithynia.                                                         231.
+
+  Pontus.                                                           232.
+
+  Cappadocia; Armenia.                                              234.
+
+  Bactria; Parthia.                                                 235.
+
+  Judæa, under Egypt and Syria.                                     237.
+         Under the Maccabees.                                       238.
+         Under the Herods.                                          240.
+
+                                 BOOK V.
+
+      _History of Rome, from the Earliest Times to the Fall of the
+                            Western Empire._
+
+  Geographical Sketch of Italy.                                     245.
+
+        I. HISTORY OF THE ROMAN KINGDOM.                            248.
+
+  Religion of Rome.                                                 255.
+
+       II. HISTORY OF THE ROMAN REPUBLIC.                           260.
+
+  FIRST PERIOD. Growth of the Constitution.                         260.
+
+  Laws of the Twelve Tables.                                        265.
+
+  Capture of Rome by the Gauls.                                     269.
+
+  SECOND PERIOD. Wars for the Possession of Italy.                  274.
+
+  First Samnite War.                                                274.
+
+  Latin War, and Battle of Vesuvius.                                275.
+
+  Second Samnite War.                                               276.
+
+  Third War with Samnites and the Italian League.                   278.
+
+  War with Pyrrhus, King of Epirus.                                 279.
+
+  Colonies and Roads.                                               282.
+
+  THIRD PERIOD. Foreign Wars.                                       283.
+
+  First Punic War.                                                  284.
+
+  War with the Gauls.                                               286.
+
+  Second Punic War, and Invasion of Italy by Hannibal.              287.
+
+  Battles of the Trebia, Lake Thrasymene, Cannæ.               288, 289.
+
+  Wars with Antiochus the Great; with Spain, Liguria, Corsica,
+      Sardinia, and Macedon.                                        293.
+
+  Third Punic War.                                                  294.
+
+  Subjugation of the Spanish Peninsula.                             295.
+
+  FOURTH PERIOD. Internal Commotions and Civil Wars.                296.
+
+  Reforms Proposed by the Gracchi.                                  297.
+
+  Jugurthine Wars, and Rise of Marius.                              299.
+
+  Defeat of the Teutones and Cimbri.                                302.
+
+  Servile Wars in Sicily.                                           303.
+
+  The Social War.                                                   304.
+
+  Exile and Seventh Consulship of Marius.                           305.
+
+  Dictatorship of Sulla.                                            306.
+
+  Sertorius in Spain.                                               307.
+
+  War of the Gladiators.                                            308.
+
+  Extraordinary Power of Pompey.                                    311.
+
+  Conspiracy of Catiline.                                           312.
+
+  Triumvirate of Pompey, Cæsar, and Crassus.                        314.
+
+  Conquests of Cæsar in Gaul, Britain, and Germany.                 315.
+
+  Civil War; Pompey defeated at Pharsalia.                          319.
+
+  Cæsar Victor at Thapsus, and Master of Rome.                      321.
+
+  Murder of Cæsar in the Senate-house.                              323.
+
+  Triumvirate of Antony, Cæsar Octavianus, and Lepidus.             324.
+
+  Antony defeated at Actium; Octavianus becomes Augustus.           325.
+
+      III. HISTORY OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE.                             326.
+
+                              FIRST PERIOD.
+
+  Reigns of Augustus, 326; Tiberius, 328; Caligula, Claudius,
+      330; Nero, 331; Galba, Otho, Vitellius, 333; Vespasian, Titus,
+      Domitian, 334; Nerva, Trajan, 335; Hadrian, T. Antoninus Pius,
+      M. Aurelius Antoninus, 336; Commodus, 337.
+
+                             SECOND PERIOD.
+
+  Reigns of Pertinax, Didius Julianus, 338; Severus, Caracalla,
+      Macrinus, Elagabalus, 339; Alexander Severus, 340; Maximin, the
+      Gordians, Pupienus and Balbinus, Gordian the Younger, Philip,
+      Decius, 341; Gallus, Æmilian, Valerian, Gallienus and the
+      “Thirty Tyrants,” 342; Aurelian, Tacitus, Florian, 343; Probus,
+      Carus, Numerian, Carinus, 344.
+
+                              THIRD PERIOD.
+
+  Reigns of Diocletian and Maximian with two Cæsars, 345; of
+      Constantine, Maximian, and Maxentius in the West—Galerius,
+      Maximin, and Licinius in the East, 348; of Constantine alone,
+      and the Reörganization of the Empire, 349; of Constantine II.,
+      Constans, and Constantius II., 350; of Julian, Jovian, and
+      Valentinian I., 352; of Valens, 353; of Gratian, Valentinian
+      II., and Theodosius I., 354.
+
+                             FOURTH PERIOD.
+
+  Final Separation of the Eastern and Western Empires.              356.
+
+  Reigns, in the West, of Honorius, 356; of Valentinian III.,
+      358; of Maximus, 359; of Avitus, Marjorian, Libius Severus,
+      Anthemius, Olybrius, Glycerius, and Julius Nepos, 360; of
+      Romulus Augustulus, 361.
+
+                                  MAPS.
+
+  I. The World as known to the Assyrians.                   facing   17.
+
+  II. Empire of the Persians.                                 ”      97.
+
+  III. Ancient Greece and the Ægean Sea.                      ”     113.
+
+  IV. Empire of the Macedonians.                              ”     209.
+
+  V. Italy, with the Eleven Regions of Augustus.              ”     257.
+
+  VI. The Roman Empire.                                       ”     305.
+
+
+
+
+INTRODUCTION.
+
+
+SOURCES AND DIVISIONS OF HISTORY.
+
+=1.= The former inhabitants of our world are known to us by three kinds
+of evidence: (1) Written Records; (2) Architectural Monuments; (3)
+Fragmentary Remains.
+
+=2.= Of these the first alone can be considered as true sources of
+History, though the latter afford its most interesting and valuable
+illustrations. Several races of men have disappeared from the globe,
+leaving no records inscribed either upon stone or parchment. Their
+existence and character can only be inferred from fragments of their
+weapons, ornaments, and household utensils found in their tombs or
+among the ruins of their habitations. Such were the Lake-dwellers of
+Switzerland, and the unknown authors of the shell-mounds of Denmark and
+India, the tumuli of Britain, and the earthworks of the Mississippi
+Valley.
+
+=3.= The magnificent temples and palaces of Egypt, Assyria, and India
+have only afforded materials of history since the patient diligence of
+oriental scholars has succeeded in deciphering the inscriptions which
+they bear. Within a few years they have added immeasurably to our
+knowledge of primeval times, and explained in a wonderful manner the
+brief allusions of the Bible.
+
+=4.= The oldest existing books are the Hebrew Scriptures, which alone[1]
+of ancient writings describe the preparation of the earth for the abode
+of man; his creation and primeval innocence; the entrance of Sin into
+the world, and the promise of Redemption; the first probation, and the
+almost total destruction of the human race by a flood; the vain attempt
+of Noah’s descendants to avert similar punishment in future by building a
+“city and a tower whose top may reach unto heaven,” and their consequent
+dispersion. The Bible lays the foundation of all subsequent history by
+sketching the division of the human race into its three great families,
+and describing their earliest migrations.
+
+=5.= The family of SHEM, which was appointed to guard the true primeval
+faith, remained near the original home in south-western Asia. Of the
+descendants of HAM, a part settled in the valleys of the Tigris and
+Euphrates, and built the great cities of Nineveh and Babylon; while the
+rest spread along the eastern and southern shores of the Mediterranean,
+and became the founders of the Egyptian Empire. The children of JAPHETH
+constituted the Indo-Germanic, or Aryan race, which was divided into two
+great branches. One, moving eastward, settled the table-lands of Iran
+and the fertile valleys of northern India; the other, traveling westward
+along the Euxine and Propontis, occupied the islands of the Ægean Sea,
+and the peninsulas of Greece and Italy. By successive migrations they
+overspread all Europe.
+
+=6.= Our First Book treats of the Hamitic and Semitic empires. With
+the rise of the Medo-Persian monarchy, the Aryan race came upon the
+scene, and it has ever since occupied the largest place in History.
+The _Hamitic_ nations were distinguished by their material grandeur,
+as exemplified by the enormous masses of stone employed in their
+architecture, and even in their sculpture; the _Semitic_, by their
+religious enthusiasm; the _Indo-Germanic_, by their intellectual
+activity, as exhibited in the highest forms of art, literature, and
+political organization.
+
+=7.= History is divided into three great portions or periods: Ancient,
+Mediæval, and Modern.
+
+Ancient History narrates the succession of empires which ruled Asia,
+Africa, and Europe, until the Roman dominion in Italy was overthrown by
+northern barbarians, A. D. 476.
+
+Mediæval History begins with the establishment of a German kingdom in
+Gaul, and ends with the close of the fifteenth century, when the revival
+of ancient learning, the multiplication of printed books, and the
+expansion of ideas by the discovery of a new continent, occasioned great
+mental activity, and led to the Modern Era, in which we live.
+
+=8.= Ancient History may be divided into five books:
+
+    I. History of the Asiatic and African nations, from the
+    earliest times to the foundation of the Persian Empire, B. C.
+    558.
+
+    II. History of the Persian Empire, from the accession of Cyrus
+    the Great to the death of Darius Codomannus, B. C. 558-330.
+
+    III. History of the States and Colonies of Greece, from their
+    earliest period to the accession of Alexander of Macedon, B. C.
+    336.
+
+    IV. History of the Macedonian Empire, and the kingdoms formed
+    from it, until their conquest by the Romans.
+
+    V. History of Rome from its foundation to the fall of the
+    Western Empire, A. D. 476.
+
+=9.= In the study of events, the two circumstances of time and place
+constantly demand our attention. Accordingly, CHRONOLOGY and GEOGRAPHY
+have been called the two eyes of History. It is only by the use of both
+that we can gain a complete and life-like impression of events.
+
+=10.= For the want of the former, a large portion of the life of man upon
+the globe can be but imperfectly known. There is no detailed record of
+the ages that preceded the Deluge and Dispersion; and even after those
+great crises, long periods are covered only by vague traditions. We have
+no complete chronology for the Hebrews before the building of Solomon’s
+Temple, B. C. 1004; for the Babylonians before Nabonassar, B. C. 748; or
+for the Greeks before the first Olympiad, B. C. 776. When its system of
+computation was settled, each nation selected its own era from which to
+date events; but we reduce all to our common reckoning of time before and
+after the Birth of Christ.
+
+=11.= The study of GEOGRAPHY is more intimately connected with that of
+History than may at first appear. The growth and character of nations are
+greatly influenced, if not determined, by soil and climate, the position
+of mountains, and the course of rivers.
+
+    NOTE.—It is recommended to Teachers that the Geographical
+    sections which precede Parts 1 and 2 of Book I, Book III, and
+    Book V, be read aloud in the class, each pupil having his or
+    her eye upon the map, and pronouncing the name of each locality
+    mentioned, _only when it is found_. By this means the names
+    will become familiar, and questions upon the peculiarities of
+    each country can be afterward combined with the lessons. Many
+    details necessarily omitted from maps I., II., IV., and VI.,
+    will be found on maps III. and V.
+
+    Pupils are strongly urged to study History with the map before
+    them; if possible, even a larger and fuller map than can be
+    given in this book. Any little effort which this may cost, will
+    be more than repaid in the ease with which the lesson will be
+    remembered, when the places where events have occurred are
+    clearly in the mind.
+
+
+
+
+BOOK I.
+
+NATIONS OF ASIA AND AFRICA FROM THE DISPERSION AT BABEL TO THE FOUNDATION
+OF THE PERSIAN EMPIRE.
+
+B. C. (ABOUT) 2700-558.
+
+
+
+
+PART I. ASIATIC NATIONS.
+
+
+VIEW OF THE GEOGRAPHY OF ASIA.
+
+=12.= ASIA, the largest division of the Eastern Hemisphere, possesses
+the greatest variety of soil, climate, and products. Its central and
+principal portion is a vast table-land, surrounded by the highest
+mountain chains in the world, on whose northern, eastern, and southern
+inclinations great rivers have their rise. Of these, the best known to
+the ancients were the Tigris and Euphra´tes, the Indus, Etyman´der,
+Arius, Oxus, Jaxar´tes, and Jordan.
+
+=13.= NORTHERN ASIA, north of the great table-land and the Altai range,
+is a low, grassy plain, destitute of trees, and unproductive, but
+intersected by many rivers abounding in fish. It was known to the Greeks
+under the general name of Scythia. From the most ancient times to the
+present, it has been inhabited by wandering tribes, who subsisted mainly
+upon the milk and flesh of their animals.
+
+=14.= CENTRAL ASIA, lying between the Altai on the north, and the Elburz,
+Hindu Kûsh, and Himala´ya Mountains on the south, has little connection
+with ancient History. Three countries in its western part are of some
+importance: _Choras´mia_, between the Caspian and the Sea of Aral;
+_Sogdia´na_ to the east, and _Bac´tria_ to the south of that province.
+The modern Sam´arcand is Maracan´da, the ancient capital of Sogdiana.
+Bactra, now Balkh, was probably the first great city of the Aryan race.
+
+=15.= SOUTHERN ASIA may be divided into eastern and western sections by
+the Indus River. The eastern portion was scarcely known to the Persians,
+Greeks, and Romans; and materials are yet lacking for its authentic
+history: the western, on the contrary, was the scene of the earliest and
+most important events.
+
+=16.= SOUTH-WESTERN ASIA may be considered in three portions: (1) Asia
+Minor, or the peninsula of Anato´lia; (2) The table-land eastward to the
+Indus, including the mountains of Arme´nia; (3) The lowland south of this
+plateau, extending from the base of the mountains to the Erythræ´an Sea.
+
+=17.= ASIA MINOR, in the earliest period, contained the following
+countries: Phry´gia and Cappado´cia, on its central table-land, divided
+from each other by the river Ha´lys; Bithy´nia and Paphlago´nia on the
+coast of the Euxine; Mysia, Lydia, and Caria, on that of the Æge´an;
+Lycia, Pamphyl´ia, and Cilic´ia, on the borders of the Mediterranean.
+It possessed many important islands: Proconne´sus, in the Propon´tis;
+Ten´edos, Les´bos, Chi´os, Sa´mos, and Rhodes, in the Ægean; and Cy´prus,
+in the Levant´.
+
+=18.= _Phrygia_ was a grazing country, celebrated from the earliest times
+for its breed of sheep, whose fleece was of wonderful fineness, and black
+as the plumage of the raven. The Ango´ra goat and the rabbit of the same
+region were likewise famed for the fineness of their hair. _Cappadocia_
+was inhabited by the White Syrians, so called because they were of fairer
+complexion than those of the south. The richest portion of Asia Minor lay
+upon the coast of the Ægean; and of the three provinces, _Lydia_, the
+central, was most distinguished for wealth, elegance, and luxury. The
+Lydians were the first who coined money. The River Pacto´lus brought from
+the recesses of Mt. Tmolus a rich supply of gold, which was washed from
+its sands in the streets of Sardis, the capital.
+
+=19.= The Grecian colonies, which, at a later period, covered the coasts
+of Asia Minor, will be found described in Book III.[2] This peninsula
+was the field of many wars between the nations of Europe and Asia. From
+its intermediate position, it was always the prize of the conqueror;
+and after the earliest period of history, it was never occupied by any
+kingdom of great extent or of long duration.
+
+=20.= The highlands of south-western Asia contained seventeen countries,
+of which only the most important will here be named. _Arme´nia_ has been
+called the Switzerland of Western Asia. Its highest mountain is Ar´arat,
+17,000 feet above the sea-level. From this elevated region the Tigris
+and Euphrates take their course to the Persian Gulf; the Halys to the
+Euxine; the Arax´es and the Cyrus to the Caspian Sea. _Colchis_ lay east
+of the Euxine, upon one of the great highways of ancient traffic. It was
+celebrated, in very early times, for its trade in linen. _Media_ was
+a mountainous region, extending from the Araxes to the Caspian Gates.
+_Persia_ lay between Media and the Persian Gulf. Its southern portion is
+a sandy plain, rendered almost desert in summer by a hot, pestilential
+wind from the Steppes of Kerman. Farther from the sea, the country rises
+into terraces, covered with rich and well-watered pastures, and abounding
+in pleasant fruits. The climate of this region is delightful; but it soon
+changes, toward the north, into that of a sterile mountain tract, chilled
+by snows, which cover the peaks even in summer, and affording only a
+scanty pasturage to flocks of sheep.
+
+=21.= The lowland plain of south-western Asia comprised Syr´ia, Arabia,
+Assyr´ia, Susia´na, and Babylo´nia. _Syria_ occupied the whole eastern
+coast of the Mediterranean, and consisted of three distinct parts: (1)
+Syria Proper had for its chief river the Oron´tes, which flowed between
+the parallel mountain ranges of Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon. (2) Phœni´cia
+comprised the narrow strip of coast between Lebanon and the sea. (3)
+Palestine, south of Phœnicia, had for its river the Jordan, and for its
+principal mountains Hermon and Carmel. Syria becomes less fertile as it
+recedes from the mountains, and merges at last into a desert, with no
+traces of cities or of settled habitations. Yet even this sandy waste
+is varied by a few fertile spots. The site of Palmy´ra, “Queen of the
+Desert,” may be discerned even now in her magnificent ruins. In more
+prosperous days she afforded entertainment to caravans on their way from
+India to the coast of the Mediterranean.
+
+=22.= _Arabia_ is a vast extent of country south and east of Syria, lying
+between the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf. Though more than one-fourth
+the size of Europe, it was of little importance in ancient times; for
+its usually rocky or sandy soil sustained few inhabitants, and afforded
+little material for commerce.
+
+_Assyria Proper_ lay east of the Tigris and west of the Median Mountains.
+The great empire which bore that name varied in extent under different
+monarchs, and the name of Assyria is often applied to all the territory
+between the Zagros Mountains and the Mediterranean Sea. The region
+between the two great rivers and north of Babylonia was called by the
+Greeks _Mesopota´mia_. It differed from the more southerly province
+in being richly wooded: the forests near the Euphrates more than once
+supplied materials for a fleet to Roman emperors in later times.
+
+_Susiana_ lay along the Tigris, south-east of Assyria. It was crossed by
+numerous rivers, and was very rich in grain. Its only important city was
+Susa, its capital.
+
+=23.= _Babylonia_ comprised the great alluvial plain between the lower
+waters of the Tigris and Euphrates, and sometimes included the country
+south of the latter river, on the borders of Arabia Deserta, which is
+better known as _Chaldæ´a_. When the snows melt upon the mountains of
+Armenia, both rivers, but especially the Euphrates, become suddenly
+swollen, and tend to overflow their banks. In fighting against this
+aggression of Nature, the Babylonians early developed that energy of mind
+which made their country the first abode of Eastern civilization. The
+net-work of canals which covered the country served the three purposes
+of internal traffic, defense, and irrigation. Immense lakes were dug or
+enlarged for the preservation of surplus waters; and the earth thrown
+out of these excavations formed dykes along the banks of the rivers. The
+fertile plain, so thoroughly watered, produced enormous quantities of
+grain, the farmer being rewarded with never less than two hundred fold
+the seed sown, and in favorable seasons, with three hundred fold. We
+shall not be surprised, therefore, to learn that Babylonia was, from the
+earliest times, the seat of populous cities, crowded with the products of
+human industry, and that its people long constituted the leading state
+of Western Asia. Though the plain of Babylonia afforded neither wood nor
+stone for building, Nature had provided for human habitations a supply of
+excellent clay for brick, and wells of bitumen which served for mortar.
+(Gen. xi: 3.)
+
+=24.= SOUTH-EASTERN ASIA. _India_ extends from the Indus eastward to the
+boundaries of China, being bounded on the south by the Indian Ocean,
+and on the north by the Himala´yas, from whose snowy heights many great
+rivers descend to fertilize the plains. The richness of the soil fits it
+for the abode of a swarming population; and roads, temples, and other
+structures, dating from a very remote period, attest the skill and
+industry of the people. Herod´otus[3] names them as the greatest and
+wealthiest of nations, though he had not seen them. It was only in the
+fifth century before Christ that the Indian peninsulas became distinctly
+known to the Greeks; and it was two centuries later, in the invasion
+by Alexander, that the remarkable features of the country were first
+described to the Western world by eye-witnesses. “Wool-bearing trees”
+were mentioned as a most peculiar production; for cotton, as well as
+sugar, was first produced in India. The pearl fisheries, however, of
+the eastern coast, the diamonds of Golcon´da, the rubies of Mysore´, as
+well as the abundant gold of the river-beds, the aromatic woods of the
+forests, and the fine fabrics of cotton, silk, and wool, for which India
+was already famous,[4] drew the merchants of Phœnicia at a much earlier
+period to the banks of the Indus.
+
+=25.= _China_ was even less known than India to the inhabitants of the
+ancient world. The province of Se´rica, which formed the north-western
+corner of what is now the Chinese Empire, was visited, however, by
+Babylonian and Phœnician merchants, for its most peculiar product, silk.
+The extreme reserve of the Chinese in their dealings with foreigners, may
+already be observed in the account given by Herodotus of their trade with
+the neighboring Scythians. The Sericans deposited their bales of wool or
+silk in a solitary building called the Stone Tower. The merchants then
+approached, deposited beside the goods a sum which they were willing to
+pay, and retired out of sight. The Sericans returned, and, if satisfied
+with the bargain, took away the money, leaving the goods; but if they
+considered the payment insufficient, they took away the goods and left
+the money. The Chinese have always been remarkable for their patient and
+thorough tillage of the soil. Chin-nong, their fourth emperor, invented
+the plow; and for thousands of years custom required each monarch,
+among the ceremonies of his coronation, to guide a plow around a field,
+thus paying due honor to agriculture, as the art most essential to the
+civilization, or, rather, to the very existence of a state.
+
+[Illustration: MAP OF THE WORLD AS KNOWN TO THE ASSYRIANS.]
+
+
+CHALDÆAN MONARCHY.
+
+=26.= After the dispersion of other descendants of Noah from Babel,[5]
+Nimrod, grandson of Ham, remained near the scene of their discomfiture,
+and established a kingdom south of the Euphrates, at the head of the
+Persian Gulf. The unfinished tower was converted into a temple, other
+buildings sprang from the clay of the plain, and thus Nimrod became
+the founder of Babylon, though its grandeur and magnificent adornments
+date from a later period. Nimrod owed his supremacy to the personal
+strength and prowess which distinguished him as a “mighty hunter before
+the Lord.” In the early years after the Flood, it is probable that wild
+beasts multiplied so as to threaten the extinction of the human race,
+and the chief of men in the gratitude and allegiance of his fellows
+was he who reduced their numbers. Nimrod founded not only Babylon, but
+E´rech, or O´rchoë, Ac´cad, and Cal´neh. The Chaldæans continued to be
+notable builders; and vast structures of brick cemented with bitumen,
+each brick bearing the monarch’s or the architect’s name, still attest,
+though in ruins, their enterprise and skill. They manufactured, also,
+delicate fabrics of wool, and possessed the arts of working in metals and
+engraving on gems in very high perfection. Astronomy began to be studied
+in very early times, and the observations were carefully recorded. The
+name of Chaldæan became equivalent to that of seer or philosopher.
+
+=27.= The names of fifteen or sixteen kings have been deciphered upon
+the earliest monuments of the country, but we possess no records of their
+reigns. It is sufficient to remember the dynasties, or royal families,
+which, according to Bero´sus,[6] ruled in Chaldæa from about two thousand
+years before Christ to the beginning of connected chronology.
+
+1. A Chaldæan Dynasty, from about 2000 to 1543 B. C. The only known kings
+are Nimrod and Chedorlao´mer.
+
+2. An Arabian Dynasty, from about 1543 to 1298 B. C.
+
+3. A Dynasty of forty-five kings, probably Assyrian, from 1298 to 772 B.
+C.
+
+4. The Reign of Pul, from 772 to 747 B. C.
+
+During the first and last of these periods, the country was flourishing
+and free; during the second, it seems to have been subject to its
+neighbors in the south-west; and, during the third, it was absorbed into
+the great Assyrian Empire, as a tributary kingdom, if not merely as a
+province.
+
+
+ASSYRIAN MONARCHY.
+
+=28.= At a very early period a kingdom was established upon the Tigris,
+which expanded later into a vast empire. Of its earliest records only the
+names of three or four kings remain to us; but the quadrangular mounds
+which cover the sites of cities and palaces, and the rude sculptures
+found by excavation upon their walls, show the industry of a large and
+luxurious population. The history of Assyria may be divided into three
+periods:
+
+    I. From unknown commencement of the monarchy to the Conquest of
+    Babylon, about 1250 B. C.
+
+    II. From Conquest of Babylon to Accession of Tiglath-pileser
+    II, 745 B. C.
+
+    III. From Accession of Tiglath-pileser to Fall of Nineveh, 625
+    B. C.
+
+[Sidenote: B. C. 1270.]
+
+One king of the FIRST PERIOD, Shalmaneser I, is known to have made war
+among the Armenian Mountains, and to have established cities in the
+conquered territory.
+
+[Sidenote: B. C. 1130.]
+
+[Sidenote: B. C. 1100-909.]
+
+[Sidenote: B. C. 886-858.]
+
+[Sidenote: B. C. 858-823.]
+
+=29.= SECOND PERIOD, B. C. 1250-745. About the middle of the thirteenth
+century B. C., Tiglathi-nin conquered Babylon. A hundred and twenty years
+later, a still greater monarch, Tiglath-pileser I, extended his conquests
+eastward into the Persian mountains, and westward to the borders of
+Syria. After the warlike reign of his son, Assyria was probably weakened
+and depressed for two hundred years, since no records have been found.
+From the year 909 B. C., the chronology becomes exact, and the materials
+for history abundant. As´shur-nazir-pal I carried on wars in Persia,
+Babylonia, Armenia, and Syria, and captured the principal Phœnician
+towns. He built a great palace at Ca´lah, which he made his capital. His
+son, Shalmane´ser II, continued his father’s conquests, and made war in
+Lower Syria against Benha´dad, Haza´el, and A´hab.
+
+=30.= B. C. 810-781. I´va-lush (Hu-likh-khus IV) extended his empire both
+eastward and westward in twenty-six campaigns. He married Sam´mura´mit
+(Semi´ramis), heiress of Babylonia, and exercised, either in her right
+or by conquest, royal authority over that country. No name is more
+celebrated in Oriental history than that of Semiramis; but it is probable
+that most of the wonderful works ascribed to her are purely fabulous. The
+importance of the real Sammuramit, who is the only princess mentioned in
+Assyrian annals, perhaps gave rise to fanciful legends concerning a queen
+who, ruling in her own right, conquered Egypt and part of Ethiopia, and
+invaded India with an army of more than a million of men. This mythical
+heroine ended her career by flying away in the form of a dove. It became
+customary to ascribe all buildings and other public works whose origin
+was unknown, to Semiramis; the date of her reign was fixed at about
+2200 B. C.; and she was said to have been the wife of Ninus, an equally
+mythical person, the reputed founder of Nineveh.
+
+[Sidenote: B. C. 771-753.]
+
+[Sidenote: B. C. 753-745.]
+
+=31.= Asshur-danin-il II was less warlike than his ancestors. The time of
+his reign is ascertained by an eclipse of the sun, which the inscriptions
+place in his ninth year, and which astronomers know to have occurred June
+15, 763 B. C. After Asshur-likh-khus, the following king, the dynasty was
+ended with a revolution. Nabonas´sar, of Babylon, not only made himself
+independent, but gained a brief supremacy over Assyria. The Assyrians,
+during the Second Period, made great advances in literature and arts.
+The annals of each reign were either cut in stone or impressed upon a
+duplicate series of bricks, to guard against destruction either by fire
+or water. If fire destroyed the burnt bricks, it would only harden the
+dried; and if the latter were dissolved by water, the former would remain
+uninjured. Engraved columns were erected in all the countries under
+Assyrian rule.
+
+[Sidenote: B. C. 745-727.]
+
+=32.= THIRD PERIOD, B. C. 745-625. Tiglath-pileser II was the founder
+of the New or Lower Assyrian Empire, which he established by active
+and successful warfare. He conquered Damascus, Samaria, Tyre, the
+Philistines, and the Arabians of the Sinaitic peninsula; carried away
+captives from the eastern and northern tribes of Israel, and took tribute
+from the king of Judah. (2 Kings xv: 29; xvi: 7-9.) Shalmaneser IV
+conquered Phœnicia, but was defeated in a naval assault upon Tyre. His
+successor, Sargon, took Samaria, which had revolted, and carried its
+people captive to his newly conquered provinces of Media and Gauzanitis.
+He filled their places with Babylonians, whose king, Merodach-baladan, he
+had captured, B. C. 709. An interesting inscription of Sargon relates his
+reception of tribute from seven kings of Cyprus, “who have fixed their
+abode in the middle of the sea of the setting sun.” The city and palace
+of Khor´sabad´ were entirely the work of Sargon. The palace was covered
+with sculptures within and without; it was ornamented with enameled
+bricks, arranged in elegant and tasteful patterns, and was approached
+by noble flights of steps through splendid porticos. In this “palace of
+incomparable splendor, which he had built for the abode of his royalty,”
+are found Sargon’s own descriptions of the glories of his reign. “I
+imposed tribute on Pharaoh, of Egypt; on Tsamsi, Queen of Arabia; on
+Ithamar, the Sabæan, in gold, spices, horses, and camels.” Among the
+spoils of the Babylonian king, he enumerates his golden tiara, scepter,
+throne and parasol, and silver chariot. In the old age of Sargon,
+Merodach-baladan recovered his throne, and the Assyrian king was murdered
+in a conspiracy.
+
+[Sidenote: B. C. 705-680.]
+
+=33.= His son, Sennach´erib, reëstablished Assyrian power at the eastern
+and western extremities of his empire. He defeated Merodach-baladen,
+and placed first an Assyrian viceroy, and afterward his own son,
+Assarana´dius, upon the Babylonian throne. He quelled a revolt of the
+Phœnician cities, and extorted tribute from most of the kings in Syria.
+He gained a great battle at El´tekeh, in Palestine, against the kings of
+Egypt and Ethiopia, and captured all the “fenced cities of Judah.” (2
+Kings xviii: 13.) In a second expedition against Palestine and Egypt,
+185,000 of his soldiers were destroyed in a single night, near Pelusium,
+as a judgment for his impious boasting. (2 Kings xix: 35, 36.) On his
+return to Nineveh, two of his sons conspired against him and slew him,
+and E´sarhad´don, another son, obtained the crown. His reign (B. C.
+680-667) was signalized by many conquests. He defeated Tir´hakeh, king
+of Egypt, and broke up his kingdom into petty states. He completed the
+colonization of Samaria with people from Babylonia, Susiana, and Persia.
+His royal residence was alternately at Nineveh and Babylon.
+
+[Sidenote: B. C. 667-647.]
+
+=34.= Under As´shur-ba´ni-pal, son of Esarhaddon, Assyria attained her
+greatest power and glory. He reconquered Egypt, which had rallied under
+Tirhakeh, overran Asia Minor, and imposed a tribute upon Gyges, king of
+Lydia. He subdued most of Armenia, reduced Susiana to a mere province of
+Babylonia, and exacted obedience from many Arabian tribes. He built the
+grandest of all the Assyrian palaces, cultivated music and the arts, and
+established a sort of royal library at Nineveh.
+
+[Illustration: COURT OF SARGON’S PALACE, AT KHORSABAD.]
+
+[Sidenote: B. C. 647-625.]
+
+=35.= The reign of his son, Asshur-emid-ilin, called Saracus by the
+Greeks, was overwhelmed with disasters. A horde of barbarians, from the
+plains of Scythia, invaded the empire, and before it could recover from
+the shock, it was rent by a double revolt of Media on the north, and
+Babylonia on the south. Nabopolassar, the Babylonian, had been general
+of the armies of Saracus; but finding himself stronger than his master,
+he made an alliance with Cyax´ares, king of the Medes, in concert with
+whom he besieged and captured Nineveh. The Assyrian monarch perished in
+the flames of his palace, and the two conquerors divided his dominions
+between them. Thus ended the Assyrian Empire, B. C. 625.
+
+=36.= The THIRD PERIOD was the Golden Age of Assyrian Art. The sculptured
+marbles which have been brought from the palaces of Sargon, Sennacherib,
+and Asshur-bani-pal, show a skill and genius in the carving which remind
+us of the Greeks. A few may be seen in collections of colleges and other
+learned societies in this country. The most magnificent specimens are
+in the British Museum, the Louvre at Paris, and the Oriental Museum at
+Berlin. During the same period the sciences of geography and astronomy
+were cultivated with great diligence; studies in language and history
+occupied multitudes of learned men; and modern scholars, as they decipher
+the long-buried memorials, are filled with admiration of the mental
+activity which characterized the times of the Lower Empire of Assyria.
+
+
+KINGS OF ASSYRIA.
+
+For the First and more than half the Second Period, the names are
+discontinuous and dates unknown. We begin, therefore, with the era of
+ascertained chronology.
+
+_Kings of the Second Period._
+
+    Asshur-danin-il I       died       B. C. 909.
+    Hu-likh-khus III       reigned       ”   909-889.
+    Tiglathi-nin II           ”          ”   889-886.
+    Asshur-nasir-pal I        ”          ”   886-858.
+    Shalmaneser II            ”          ”   858-823.
+    Shamas-iva                ”          ”   823-810.
+    Hu-likh-khus IV           ”          ”   810-781.
+    Shalmaneser III           ”          ”   781-771.
+    Asshur-danin-il II        ”          ”   771-753.
+    Asshur-likh-khus          ”          ”   753-745.
+
+_Kings of the Third Period._
+
+    Tiglath-pileser II, usurper,[7]    B. C. 745-727.
+    Shalmaneser IV,                      ”   727-721.
+    Sargon, usurper,                     ”   721-705.
+    Sennacherib,                         ”   705-680.
+    Esarhaddon,                          ”   680-667.
+    Asshur-bani-pal,             about   ”   667-647.
+    Asshur-emid-ilin,                    ”   647-625.
+
+
+RECAPITULATION.
+
+    A kingdom of mighty hunters and great builders is founded by
+    Nimrod, B. C. 2000. Chaldæa becomes subject, first to Arabian,
+    then to Assyrian invaders, but is made independent by Pul,
+    B. C. 772. The Assyrian monarchy absorbs the Chaldæan, and
+    extends itself from Syria to the Persian mountains. After two
+    hundred years’ depression, its records become authentic B.
+    C. 909. Iva-lush and Sammuramit reign jointly over greatly
+    increased territories. The Lower Empire is established by
+    Tiglath-pileser II, whose dominion reaches the Mediterranean.
+    Sargon records many conquests in his palace at Khorsabad.
+    Sennacherib recaptures Babylon and gains victories over Egypt
+    and Palestine. The Assyrian Empire is increased by Esarhaddon,
+    and culminates under Asshur-bani-pal, only to be overthrown in
+    the next reign by a Scythian invasion and a revolt of Media and
+    Babylonia.
+
+
+MEDIAN MONARCHY.
+
+=37.= Little is known of the Medes before the invasion of their country
+by Shalmaneser II, B. C. 830, and its partial conquest by Sargon,[8]
+in 710. They had some importance, however, in the earliest times after
+the Deluge, for Berosus tells us that a Median dynasty governed Babylon
+during that period. The country was doubtless divided among petty
+chieftains, whose rivalries prevented its becoming great or famous in the
+view of foreign nations.
+
+In Babylonian names, Nebo, Merodach, Bel, and Nergal correspond to
+Asshur, Sin, and Shamas in Assyrian. Thus, Abed-nego (for Nebo) is the
+“Servant of Nebo;” Nebuchadnezzar means “Nebo protect my race,” or “Nebo
+is the protector of landmarks;” Nabopolassar = “Nebo protect my son”—the
+exact equivalent of Asshur-nasir-pal in the Assyrian Dynasty of the
+Second Period.
+
+=38.= About 740 B. C., according to Herodotus, the Medes revolted from
+Assyria, and chose for their king Dei´oces, whose integrity as a judge
+had marked him as fittest for supreme command. He built the city of
+Ecbat´ana, which he fortified with seven concentric circles of stone,
+the innermost being gilded so that its battlements shone like gold. Here
+Deioces established a severely ceremonious etiquette, making up for his
+want of hereditary rank by all the external tokens of the divinity that
+“doth hedge a king.” No courtier was permitted to laugh in his presence,
+or to approach him without the profoundest expressions of reverence.
+Either his real dignity of character or these stately ceremonials had
+such effect, that he enjoyed a prosperous reign of fifty-three years.
+Though Deioces is described by Herodotus as King of the Medes, it is
+probable that he was ruler only of a single tribe, and that a great part
+of his story is merely imaginary.
+
+=39.= The true history of the Median kingdom dates from B. C. 650,
+when Phraor´tes was on the throne. This king, who is called the son of
+Deioces, extended his authority over the Persians, and formed that close
+connection of the Medo-Persian tribes which was never to be dissolved.
+The supremacy was soon gained by the latter nation. The double kingdom
+was seen by Daniel in his vision, under the form of a ram, one of whose
+horns was higher than the other, and “the higher came up last.” (Daniel
+viii: 3, 20.) Phraor´tes, reinforced by the Persians, made many conquests
+in Upper Asia. He was killed in a war against the last king of Assyria,
+B. C. 633.
+
+=40.= Determined to avenge his father’s death, Cyaxares renewed the war
+with Assyria. He was called off to resist a most formidable incursion
+of barbarians from the north of the Caucasus. These Scythians became
+masters of Western Asia, and their insolent dominion is said to have
+lasted twenty-eight years. A band of the nomads were received into the
+service of Cyaxares as huntsmen. According to Herodotus, they returned
+one day empty-handed from the chase; and upon the king’s expressing his
+displeasure, their ferocious temper burst all bounds. They served up to
+him, instead of game, the flesh of one of the Median boys who had been
+placed with them to learn their language and the use of the bow, and then
+fled to the court of the King of Lydia. This circumstance led to a war
+between Alyat´tes and Cyaxares, which continued five years without any
+decisive result. It was terminated by an eclipse of the sun occurring
+in the midst of a battle. The two kings hastened to make peace; and the
+treaty, which fixed the boundary of their two empires at the River Halys,
+was confirmed by the marriage of the son of Cyaxares with the daughter of
+Alyattes. The Scythian oppressions were ended by a general massacre of
+the barbarians, who, by a secretly concerted plan, had been invited to
+banquets and made drunken with wine.
+
+=41.= Cyaxares now resumed his plans against Assyria. In alliance with
+Nabopolassar, of Babylon, he was able to capture Nineveh, overthrow the
+empire, and render Media a leading power in Asia. The successful wars
+of Cyaxares secured for himself and his son nearly half a century of
+peace, during which the Medes rapidly adopted the luxurious habits of the
+nations they had conquered. The court of Ecbatana became as magnificent
+as that of Nineveh had been when at the height of its grandeur. The
+courtiers delighted in silken garments of scarlet and purple, with
+collars and bracelets of gold, and the same precious metal adorned
+the harness of their horses. Reminiscences of the old barbaric life
+remained in an excessive fondness for hunting, which was indulged either
+in the parks about the capital, or in the open country, where lions,
+leopards, bears, wild boars, stags, and antelopes still abounded. The
+great wooden palace, covered with plates of gold and silver, as well as
+other buildings of the capital, showed a barbarous fondness for costly
+materials, rather than grandeur of architectural ideas. The Magi, a
+priestly caste, had great influence in the Median court. The education of
+each young king was confided to them, and they continued throughout his
+life to be his most confidential counselors.
+
+=42.= B. C. 593. Cyaxares died after a reign of forty years. His son,
+Asty´ages, reigned thirty-five years in friendly and peaceful alliance
+with the kings of Lydia and Babylon. Little is known of him except the
+events connected with his fall, and these will be found related in the
+history of Cyrus, Book II.
+
+Known Kings of Media.
+
+    Phraortes      died      B. C. 633.
+    Cyaxares      reigned      ”   633-593.
+    Astyages         ”         ”   593-558.
+
+    NOTE.—It is impossible to reconcile the chronology of the reign
+    of Cyaxares with _all_ the ancient accounts. If the Scythian
+    invasion occurred _after_ the beginning of his reign, continued
+    twenty-eight years, and ended before the Fall of Nineveh, it
+    is easy to see that the date of the latter event must have
+    been later than is given in the text. The French school of
+    Orientalists place it, in fact, B. C. 606, and the accession of
+    Cyaxares in 634. The English school, with Sir H. Rawlinson at
+    their head, give the dates which we have adopted.
+
+
+BABYLONIAN MONARCHY.
+
+=43.= For nearly five hundred years, Babylon had been governed by
+Assyrian viceroys, when Nabonassar (747 B. C.) threw off the yoke, and
+established an independent kingdom. He destroyed the humiliating records
+of former servitude, and began a new era from which Babylonian time was
+afterward reckoned.
+
+[Sidenote: B. C. 721-709.]
+
+=44.= Merodach-baladan, the fifth king of this line, sent an embassy
+to Hezekiah, king of Judah, to congratulate him upon his recovery from
+illness, and to inquire concerning an extraordinary phenomenon connected
+with his restoration. (Isaiah xxxviii: 7, 8; xxxix: 1.) This shows that
+the Babylonians were no less alert for astronomical observations than
+their predecessors, the Chaldæans. In fact, the brilliant clearness of
+their heavens early led the inhabitants of this region to a study of the
+stars. The sky was mapped out in constellations, and the fixed stars
+were catalogued; time was measured by sun-dials, and other astronomical
+instruments were invented by the Babylonians.
+
+[Sidenote: B. C. 680-667.]
+
+[Sidenote: B. C. 667-647.]
+
+[Sidenote: B. C. 647-625.]
+
+=45.= The same Merodach-baladan was taken captive by Sargon, king of
+Assyria, and held for six years, while an Assyrian viceroy occupied his
+throne. He escaped and resumed his government, but was again dethroned
+by Sennacherib, son of Sargon. The kingdom remained in a troubled
+state, usually ruled by Assyrians, but seeking independence, until
+Esarhaddon, son of Sennacherib, conquered Babylon, built himself a
+palace, and reigned alternately at that city and at Nineveh. His son,
+Sa´os-duchi´nus, governed Babylon as viceroy for twenty years, and was
+succeeded by Cinnelada´nus, another Assyrian, who ruled twenty-two years.
+
+[Sidenote: B. C. 625-604.]
+
+[Sidenote: B. C. 608.]
+
+[Sidenote: B. C. 605.]
+
+=46.= B. C. 625. SECOND PERIOD. Nabopolas´sar, a Babylonian general,
+took occasion, from the misfortunes of the Assyrian Empire, to end
+the long subjection of his people. He allied himself with Cyaxares,
+the Median king, to besiege Nineveh and overthrow the empire. In the
+subsequent division of spoils, he received Susiana, the Euphrates
+Valley, and the whole of Syria, and erected a new empire, whose history
+is among the most brilliant of ancient times. The extension of his
+dominions westward brought him in collision with a powerful neighbor,
+Pha´raoh-ne´choh, of Egypt, who actually subdued the Syrian provinces,
+and held them a few years. But Nabopolassar sent his still more powerful
+son, Nebuchadnez´zar, who chastised the Egyptian king in the battle of
+Car´chemish, and wrested from him the stolen provinces. He also besieged
+Jerusalem, and returned to Babylon laden with the treasures of the temple
+and palace of Solomon. He brought in his train Jehoi´akim, king of Judah,
+and several young persons of the royal family, among whom was the prophet
+Daniel.
+
+[Sidenote: B. C. 604-561.]
+
+=47.= During his son’s campaign, Nabopolassar had died at Babylon,
+and the victorious prince was immediately acknowledged as king.
+Nebuchadnezzar made subsequent wars in Phœnicia, Palestine, and Egypt,
+and established an empire which extended westward to the Mediterranean
+Sea. He deposed the king of Egypt, and placed Amasis upon the throne as
+his deputy. Zedeki´ah, who had been elevated to the throne of Judah,
+rebelled against Babylon, and Nebuchadnezzar set out in person to punish
+his treachery. He besieged Jerusalem eighteen months, and captured
+Zedekiah, who, with true Eastern cruelty, was compelled to see his
+two sons murdered before his eyes were put out, and he was carried in
+chains to Babylon. In a later war, Nebuzar-adan, general of the armies
+of Nebuchadnezzar, destroyed Jerusalem, burned the temple and palaces,
+and carried the remnant of the people to Babylon. The strong and wealthy
+city of Tyre revolted, and resisted for thirteen years the power of the
+great king, but at length submitted, and all Phœnicia remained under the
+Babylonian yoke, B. C. 585.
+
+=48.= The active mind of Nebuchadnezzar, absorbed in schemes of conquest,
+began to be visited by dreams, in one of which the series of great
+empires which were yet to arise in the east was distinctly foreshadowed.
+Of all the wise men of the court, Daniel alone was enabled to interpret
+the vision; and his spiritual insight, together with the singular
+elevation and purity of his character, gained him the affectionate
+confidence of the king. (Read Daniel ii.)
+
+=49.= The reign of Nebuchadnezzar was illustrated by grand public works.
+His wife, a Median princess, sighed for her native mountains, and was
+disgusted with the flatness of the Babylonian plain, the greatest in the
+ancient world. To gratify her, the elevated—rather than “hanging”—gardens
+were created. Arches were raised on arches in continuous series until
+they overtopped the walls of Babylon, and stairways led from terrace to
+terrace. The whole structure of masonry was overlaid with soil sufficient
+to nourish the largest trees, which, by means of hydraulic engines,
+were supplied from the river with abundant moisture. In the midst of
+these groves stood the royal winter residence; for a retreat, which in
+other climates would be most suitable for a summer habitation, was here
+reserved for those cooler months in which alone man can live in the
+open air. This first great work of landscape gardening which history
+describes, comprised a charming variety of hills and forests, rivers,
+cascades, and fountains, and was adorned with the loveliest flowers the
+East could afford.
+
+=50.= The same king surrounded the city with walls of burnt brick, two
+hundred cubits high and fifty in thickness, which, together with the
+gardens, were reckoned among the Seven Wonders of the World. During his
+reign and that of his son-in-law, Nabona´dius, the whole country was
+enriched by works of public utility: canals, reservoirs, and sluices were
+multiplied, and the shores of the Persian Gulf were improved by means of
+piers and embankments.
+
+=51.= Owing to these encouragements, as well as to her fortunate position
+midway between the Indus and the Mediterranean, with the Gulf and the
+two great rivers for natural highways, Babylon was thronged with the
+merchants of all nations, and her commerce embraced the known world.
+Manufactures, also, were numerous and famous. The cotton fabrics of
+the towns on the Tigris and Euphrates were unsurpassed for fineness of
+quality and brilliancy of color; and carpets, which were in great demand
+among the luxurious Orientals, were nowhere produced in such magnificence
+as in the looms of Babylon.
+
+=52.= It is not strange that the pride of Nebuchadnezzar was kindled by
+the magnificence of his capital. As he walked upon the summit of his
+new palace, and looked down upon the swarming multitudes who owed their
+prosperity to his protection and fostering care, he said, “Is not this
+great Babylon, that _I_ have built for the house of the kingdom by the
+might of my power, and for the honor of my majesty?” At that moment the
+humiliation foretold in a previous dream, interpreted by Daniel, came
+upon him. We can not better describe the manner of the judgment than in
+the king’s own words (Daniel iv: 31-37):
+
+“While the word was in the king’s mouth, there fell a voice from heaven,
+saying, O King Nebuchadnezzar, to thee it is spoken; The kingdom is
+departed from thee. And they shall drive thee from men, and thy dwelling
+shall be with the beasts of the field: they shall make thee to eat grass
+as oxen, and seven times shall pass over thee, until thou know that the
+Most High ruleth in the kingdom of men, and giveth it to whomsoever
+he will. The same hour was the thing fulfilled upon Nebuchadnezzar:
+and he was driven from men, and did eat grass as oxen, and his body
+was wet with the dew of heaven, till his hairs were grown like eagles’
+feathers, and his nails like birds’ claws. And at the end of the days, I,
+Nebuchadnezzar, lifted up mine eyes unto heaven, and mine understanding
+returned unto me, and I blessed the Most High, and I praised and honored
+him that liveth forever, whose dominion is an everlasting dominion,
+and his kingdom is from generation to generation.… At the same time my
+reason returned unto me; and for the glory of my kingdom, mine honor and
+brightness returned unto me; and my counselors and my lords sought unto
+me; and I was established in my kingdom, and excellent majesty was added
+unto me. Now I, Nebuchadnezzar, praise and extol and honor the King of
+heaven, all whose works are truth, and his ways judgment: and those that
+walk in pride he is able to abase.”
+
+[Sidenote: B. C. 561-559.]
+
+[Sidenote: B. C. 559-555.]
+
+[Sidenote: B. C. 555-538.]
+
+=53.= The immediate successors of Nebuchadnezzar were not his equals
+in character or talent. Evil-merodach, his son, was murdered after a
+reign of two years by Nereglis´sar, his sister’s husband. This prince
+was advanced in years when he ascended the throne, having been already
+a chief officer of the crown thirty years before at the siege of
+Jerusalem. He reigned but four years, and was succeeded by his son,
+La´borosoar´chod. The young king was murdered, after only nine months’
+reign, by Nabona´dius, who became the last king of Babylon. The usurper
+strengthened his title by marrying a daughter of Nebuchadnezzar—probably
+the widow of Nereglissar—and afterward by associating their son
+Belshaz´zar with him in the government. He also sought security in
+foreign alliances. He fortified his capital by river walls, and
+constructed water-works in connection with the river above the city, by
+which the whole plain north and west could be flooded to prevent the
+approach of an enemy.
+
+=54.= A new power was indeed arising in the East, against which the
+three older but feebler monarchies, Babylonia, Lydia, and Egypt, found
+it necessary to combine their forces. After the conquest of Lydia, and
+the extension of the Persian Empire to the Ægean Sea, Nabonadius had
+still fifteen years for preparation. He improved the time by laying up
+enormous quantities of food in Babylon; and felt confident that, though
+the country might be overrun, the strong walls of Nebuchadnezzar would
+enable him cheerfully to defy his foe. On the approach of Cyrus he
+resolved to risk one battle; but in this he was defeated, and compelled
+to take refuge in Bor´sippa. His son Belshazzar, being left in Babylon,
+indulged in a false assurance of safety. Cyrus, by diverting the course
+of the Euphrates, opened a way for his army into the heart of the city,
+and the court was surprised in the midst of a drunken revel, unprepared
+for resistance. The young prince, unrecognized in the confusion, was
+slain at the gate of his palace. Nabonadius, broken by the loss of his
+capital and his son, surrendered himself a prisoner; and the dominion of
+the East passed to the Medo-Persian race. Babylon became the second city
+of the empire, and the Persian court resided there the greater portion of
+the year.
+
+
+RECAPITULATION.
+
+    Deioces, the first reputed king of Media, built and adorned
+    Ecbatana. Phraortes united the Medes and Persians into one
+    powerful kingdom. In the reign of Cyaxares, the Scythians
+    ruled Western Asia twenty-eight years. After their expulsion,
+    Cyaxares, in alliance with the Babylonian viceroy, overthrew
+    the Assyrian Empire, divided its territories with his ally, and
+    raised his own dominion to a high degree of wealth. His son
+    Astyages reigned peacefully thirty-five years.
+
+    Babylon, under Nabonassar, became independent of Assyria, B.
+    C. 747. Merodach-baladan, the fifth native king, was twice
+    deposed, by Sargon and Sennacherib, and the country again
+    remained forty-two years under Assyrian rule. It was delivered
+    by Nabopolassar, whose still more powerful son, Nebuchadnezzar,
+    gained great victories over the kings of Judah and Egypt,
+    replacing the latter with viceroys of his own, and transporting
+    the former, with the princes, nobles, and sacred treasures of
+    Jerusalem, to Babylon. By a thirteen years’ siege, Tyre was
+    subdued and all Phœnicia conquered. From visions interpreted
+    by Daniel, Nebuchadnezzar learned the future rise and fall of
+    Asiatic empires. He constructed the Hanging Gardens, the walls
+    of Babylon, and many other public works. His pride was punished
+    by seven years’ degradation. Evil-merodach was murdered by
+    Nereglissar, who after four years bequeathed his crown to
+    Laborosoarchod. Nabonadius obtained the throne by violence,
+    and in concert with his son Belshazzar, tried to protect his
+    dominions against Cyrus; but Babylon was taken and the empire
+    overthrown, B. C. 538.
+
+
+KINGDOMS OF ASIA MINOR.
+
+=55.= The Anatolian peninsula, divided by its mountain chains into
+several sections, was occupied from very ancient times by different
+nations nearly equal in power. Of these, the PHRYGIANS were probably
+the earliest settlers, and at one time occupied the whole peninsula.
+Successive immigrations from the east and west pressed them inward from
+the coast, but they still had the advantage of a large and fertile
+territory. They were a brave but rather brutal race, chiefly occupied
+with agriculture, and especially the raising of the vine.
+
+=56.= The Phrygians came from the mountains of Armenia, whence they
+brought a tradition of the Flood, and of the resting of the ark on
+Mount Ararat. They were accustomed, in primitive times, to hollow their
+habitations out of the rock of the Anatolian hills, and many of these
+rock cities may be found in all parts of Asia Minor. Before the time of
+Homer, however, they had well-built towns and a flourishing commerce.
+
+=57.= Their religion consisted of many dark and mysterious rites, some of
+which were afterward copied by the Greeks. The worship of Cyb´ele, and
+of Saba´zius, god of the vine, was accompanied by the wildest music and
+dances. The capital of Phrygia was Gor´dium, on the Sanga´rius. The kings
+were alternately called Gor´dias and Mi´das, but we have no chronological
+lists. Phrygia became a province of Lydia B. C. 560.
+
+=58.= In later times LYDIA became the greatest kingdom in Asia Minor,
+both in wealth and power, absorbing in its dominion the whole peninsula,
+except Lycia, Cilicia, and Cappadocia. Three dynasties successively bore
+rule: the _Atyadæ_, before 1200 B. C.; the _Heraclidæ_, for the next
+505 years; and the _Mermnadæ_, from B. C. 694 until 546, when Crœsus,
+the last and greatest monarch, was conquered by the Persians. The name
+of this king has become proverbial from his enormous wealth. When
+associated with his father as crown prince, he was visited by Solon of
+Athens, who looked on all the splendor of the court with the coolness
+of a philosopher. Annoyed by his indifference, the prince asked Solon
+who, of all the men he had encountered in his travels, seemed to him
+the happiest. To his astonishment, the wise man named two persons in
+comparatively humble stations, but the one of whom was blessed with
+dutiful children, and the other had died a triumphant and glorious death.
+The vanity of Crœsus could no longer abstain from a direct effort to
+extort a compliment. He asked if Solon did not consider him a happy man.
+The philosopher gravely replied that, such were the vicissitudes of life,
+no man, in his opinion, could safely be pronounced happy until his life
+was ended.
+
+=59.= Crœsus extended his power over not only the whole Anatolian
+peninsula, but the Greek islands both of the Ægean and Ionian seas. He
+made an alliance with Sparta, Egypt, and Babylon to resist the growing
+empire of Cyrus; but his precautions were ineffectual; he was defeated
+and made prisoner. He is said to have been bound upon a funeral pile, or
+altar, near the gate of his capital, when he recalled with anguish of
+heart the words of the Athenian sage, and three times uttered his name,
+“Solon, Solon, Solon!” Cyrus, who was regarding the scene with curiosity,
+ordered his interpreters to inquire what god or man he had thus invoked
+in his distress. The captive king replied that it was the name of a man
+with whom he wished that every monarch might be acquainted; and described
+the visit and conversation of the serene philosopher who had remained
+undazzled by his splendor. The conqueror was inspired with a more
+generous emotion by the remembrance that he, too, was mortal; he caused
+Crœsus to be released and to dwell with him as a friend.
+
+KINGS OF LYDIA.
+
+Of the First and Second Dynasties, the names are only partially known,
+and dates are wanting.
+
+    _Atyadæ_    _Heraclidæ, last six:_    _Mermnadæ:_
+
+    Manes,      Adyattes I,               Gyges,      B. C. 694-678.
+    Atys,       Ardys,                    Ardys,       ”    678-629.
+    Lydus,      Adyattes II,              Sadyattes,   ”    629-617.
+    Meles,      Meles,                    Alyattes,    ”    617-560.
+                Myrsus,                   Crœsus,      ”    560-546.
+                Candaules.
+
+
+PHŒNICIA.
+
+=60.= The small strip of land between Mount Lebanon and the sea was more
+important to the ancient world than its size would indicate. Here arose
+the first great commercial cities, and Phœnician vessels wove a web of
+peaceful intercourse between the nations of Asia, Africa, and Europe.
+
+=61.= Sidon was probably the most ancient, and until B. C. 1050, the
+most flourishing, of all the Phœnician communities. About that year
+the Philistines of Askalon gained a victory over Sidon, and the exiled
+inhabitants took refuge in the rival city of Tyre. Henceforth the
+daughter surpassed the mother in wealth and power. When Herodotus visited
+Tyre, he found a temple of Hercules which claimed to be 2,300 years old.
+This would give Tyre an antiquity of 2,750 years B. C.
+
+=62.= Other chief cities of Phœnicia were Bery´tus (Beirût), Byb´lus,
+Tri´polis, and Ara´dus. Each with its surrounding territory made an
+independent state. Occasionally in times of danger they formed themselves
+into a league, under the direction of the most powerful; but the name
+Phœnicia applies merely to territory, not to a single well organized
+state, nor even to a permanent confederacy. Each city was ruled by its
+king, but a strong priestly influence and a powerful aristocracy, either
+of birth or wealth, restrained the despotic inclinations of the monarch.
+
+=63.= The commerce of the Phœnician cities had no rival in the earlier
+centuries of their prosperity. Their trading stations sprang up rapidly
+along the coasts and upon the islands of the Mediterranean; and even
+beyond the Pillars of Hercules, their city of Gades (Kadesh), the modern
+Cadiz, looked out upon the Atlantic. These remote colonies were only
+starting points from which voyages were made into still more distant
+regions. Merchantmen from Cadiz explored the western coasts of Africa and
+Europe. From the stations on the Red Sea, trading vessels were fitted out
+for India and Ceylon.
+
+=64.= At a later period, the Greeks absorbed the commerce of the
+Euxine and the Ægean, while Carthage claimed her share in the Western
+Mediterranean and the Atlantic. By this time, however, Western Asia was
+more tranquil under the later Assyrian and Babylonian monarchs; and the
+wealth of Babylon attracted merchant trains from Tyre across the Syrian
+Desert by way of Tadmor. Other caravans moved northward, and exchanged
+the products of Phœnician industry for the horses, mules, slaves, and
+copper utensils of Armenia and Cappadocia. A friendly intercourse was
+always maintained with Jerusalem, and a land-traffic with the Red Sea,
+which was frequented by Phœnician fleets. Gold from Ophir, pearls
+and diamonds from Eastern India and Ceylon, silver from Spain, linen
+embroidery from Egypt, apes from Western Africa, tin from the British
+Isles, and amber from the Baltic, might be found in the cargoes of Tyrian
+vessels.
+
+=65.= The Phœnicians in general were merchants, rather than
+manufacturers; but their bronzes and vessels in gold and silver, as well
+as other works in metal, had a high repute. They claimed the invention of
+glass, which they manufactured into many articles of use and ornament.
+But the most famous of their products was the “Tyrian purple,” which they
+obtained in minute drops from the two shell-fish, the _buccinum_ and
+_murex_, and by means of which they gave a high value to their fabrics of
+wool.
+
+=66.= About the time of Pygma´lion, the warlike expeditions of
+Shalmaneser II overpowered the Phœnician towns, and for more than two
+hundred years they remained tributary to the Assyrian Empire. Frequent
+but usually vain attempts were made, during the latter half of this
+period, to throw off the yoke. With the fall of Nineveh it is probable
+that Phœnicia became independent.
+
+=67.= B. C. 608. It was soon reduced, however, by Necho of Egypt, who
+added all Syria to his dominions, and held Phœnicia dependent until he
+himself was conquered by Nebuchadnezzar (B. C. 605) at Carchemish.
+The captive cities were only transferred to a new master; but, in 598,
+Tyre revolted against the Babylonian, and sustained a siege of thirteen
+years. When at length she was compelled to submit, the conqueror found no
+plunder to reward the extreme severity of his labors, for the inhabitants
+had secretly removed their treasures to an island half a mile distant,
+where New Tyre soon excelled the splendor of the Old.
+
+=68.= Phœnicia remained subject to Babylon until that power was overcome
+by the new empire of Cyrus the Great. The local government was carried on
+by native kings or judges, who paid tribute to the Babylonian king.
+
+=69.= The religion of the Phœnicians was degraded by many cruel and
+uncleanly rites. Their chief divinities, Baal and Astar´te, or Ashtaroth,
+represented the sun and moon. Baal was worshiped in groves on high
+places, sometimes, like the Ammonian Moloch, with burnt-offerings
+of human beings; always with wild, fanatical rites, his votaries
+crying aloud and cutting themselves with knives. Melcarth, the Tyrian
+Hercules, was worshiped only at Tyre and her colonies. His symbol was
+an ever-burning fire, and he probably shared with Baal the character
+of a sun-god. The marine deities were of especial importance to these
+commercial cities. Chief of these were Posi´don, Ne´reus, and Pontus. Of
+lower rank, but not less constantly remembered, were the little Cabi´ri,
+whose images formed the figure-heads of Phœnician ships. The seat of
+their worship was at Berytus.
+
+=70.= The Phœnicians were less idolatrous than the Egyptians, Greeks,
+or Romans; for their temples contained either no visible image of their
+deities, or only a rude symbol like the conical stone which was held to
+represent Astarte.
+
+KINGS OF TYRE.
+
+_First Period._
+
+    Abibaal, partly contemporary with David in Israel.
+    Hiram, his son, friend of David and Solomon,         B. C. 1025-991.
+    Balea´zar,                                             ”    991-984.
+    Abdastar´tus,                                          ”    984-975.
+    One of his assassins, whose name is unknown,           ”    975-963.
+    Astartus,                                              ”    963-951.
+    Aser´ymus, his brother,                                ”    951-942.
+    Phales, another brother, who murdered Aserymus,        ”    942-941.
+    Ethba´al,[9] high priest of Astarte,                   ”    941-909.
+    Bade´zor, his son,                                     ”    909-903.
+    Matgen, son of Badezor and father of Dido,             ”    903-871.
+    Pygmalion, brother of Dido,                            ”    871-824.
+
+For 227 years Tyre remained tributary to the Eastern Monarchies, and we
+have no list of her native rulers.
+
+_Second Period._
+
+    Ethbaal II, contemporary with Nebuchadnezzar,        B. C.  597-573.
+    Baal,                                                  ”    573-563.
+    Ec´niba´al, judge for three months,                    ”    563.
+    Chel´bes, judge ten months,                            ”    563-562.
+    Abba´rus, judge three months,                          ”    562.
+    Mytgon and Gerastar´tus, judges five years,            ”    562-557.
+    Bala´tor, king,                                        ”    557-556.
+    Merbal, king,                                          ”    556-552.
+    Hiram, king,                                           ”    552-532.
+
+
+SYRIA.
+
+=71.= Syria Proper was divided between several states, of which the most
+important in ancient times was Damascus, with its territory, a fertile
+country between Anti-Lebanon and the Syrian Desert. Beside this were
+the northern Hittites, whose chief city was Carchemish; the southern
+Hittites, in the region of the Dead Sea; the Pate´na on the lower, and
+Hamath on the upper Orontes.
+
+=72.= Damascus, on the Abana, is among the oldest cities in the world.
+It resisted the conquering arms of David and Solomon, who, with this
+exception, reigned over all the land between the Jordan and the
+Euphrates; and it continued to be a hostile and formidable neighbor to
+the Hebrew monarchy, until Jews, Israelites, and Syrians were all alike
+overwhelmed by the growth of the Assyrian Empire.
+
+KINGS OF DAMASCUS.
+
+    Hadad,       contemporary with David,            about B. C. 1040.
+    Rezon,               ”         Solomon,                  ”   1000.
+    Tab-rimmon,          ”         Abijah,                   ”    960-950.
+    Ben-hadad I,         ”         Baasha and Asa,           ”    950-920.
+    Ben-hadad II,        ”         Ahab,                     ”    900.
+    Hazael,              ”         Jehu and Shalmaneser II,  ”    850.
+    Ben-hadad III,       ”         Jehoahaz,                 ”    840.
+    Unknown until Rezin, ”         Ahaz of Judah,            ”    745-732.
+
+
+JUDÆA.
+
+=73.= The history of the Hebrew race is better known to us than that of
+any other people equally ancient, because it has been carefully preserved
+in the sacred writings. The separation of this race for its peculiar and
+important part in the world’s history, began with the call of Abraham
+from his home, near the Euphrates, to the more western country on the
+Mediterranean, which was promised to himself and his descendants. The
+story of his sons and grandsons, before and during their residence in
+Egypt, belongs, however, to family rather than national history. Their
+numbers increased until they became objects of apprehension to the
+Egyptians, who tried to break their spirit by servitude. At length, Moses
+grew up under the fostering care of Pharaoh himself; and after a forty
+years’ retirement in the deserts of Midian, adding the dignity of age
+and lonely meditation to the “learning of the Egyptians,” he became the
+liberator and law-giver of his people.
+
+=74.= The history of the Jewish nation begins with the night of their
+exodus from Egypt. The people were mustered according to their tribes,
+which bore the names of the twelve sons of Jacob, the grandson of
+Abraham. The sons of Joseph, however, received each a portion and gave
+their names to the two tribes of Ephraim and Manas´seh. The family
+of Jacob went into Egypt numbering sixty-seven persons; it went out
+numbering 603,550 warriors, not counting the Levites, who were exempted
+from military duty that they might have charge of the tabernacle and the
+vessels used in worship.
+
+=75.= After long marches and countermarches through the Arabian
+desert—needful to arouse the spirit of a free people from the cowed
+and groveling habits of the slave, as well as to counteract the long
+example of idolatry by direct Divine revelation of a pure and spiritual
+worship—the Israelites were led into the land promised to Abraham, which
+lay chiefly between the Jordan and the sea. Two and a half of the twelve
+tribes—Reuben, Gad, and the half tribe of Manasseh—preferred the fertile
+pastures east of the Jordan; and on condition of aiding their brethren in
+the conquest of their more westerly territory, received their allotted
+portion there.
+
+=76.= Moses, their great leader through the desert, died outside the
+Promised Land, and was buried in the land of Moab. His lieutenant,
+Joshua, conquered Palestine and divided it among the tribes. The
+inhabitants of Gibeon hastened to make peace with the invaders by a
+stratagem. Though their falsehood was soon discovered, Joshua was
+faithful to his oath already taken, and the Gibeonites escaped the usual
+fate of extermination pronounced upon the inhabitants of Canaan, by
+becoming servants and tributaries to the Hebrews.
+
+=77.= The kings of Palestine now assembled their forces to besiege the
+traitor city, in revenge for its alliance with the strangers. Joshua
+hastened to its assistance, and in the great battle of Beth-horon
+defeated, routed, and destroyed the armies of the five kings. This
+conflict decided the possession of central and southern Palestine. Jabin,
+“king of Canaan,” still made a stand in his fortress of Hazor, in the
+north. The conquered kings had probably been in some degree dependent
+on him as their superior, if not their sovereign. He now mustered all
+the tribes which had not fallen under the sword of the Israelites, and
+encountered Joshua at the waters of Merom. The Canaanites had horses and
+chariots; the Hebrews were on foot, but their victory was as complete
+and decisive as at Beth-horon. Hazor was taken and burnt, and its king
+beheaded.
+
+=78.= The nomads of the forty years in the desert now became a settled,
+civilized, and agricultural people. Shiloh was the first permanent
+sanctuary; there the tabernacle constructed in the desert was set up, and
+became the shrine of the national worship.
+
+=79.= Jewish History is properly divided into three periods:
+
+    I. From the Exodus to the establishment of the Monarchy, B. C.
+    1650-1095. (See Note, page 47.)
+
+    II. From the accession of Saul to the separation into two
+    kingdoms, B. C. 1095-975.
+
+    III. From the separation of the kingdoms to the Captivity at
+    Babylon, B. C. 975-586.
+
+=80.= During the First Period the government of the Hebrews was a simple
+theocracy, direction for all important movements being received through
+the high priest from God himself. The rulers, from Moses down, claimed
+no honors of royalty, but led the nation in war and judged it in peace
+by general consent. They were designated to their office at once by
+revelation from heaven, and by some special fitness in character or
+person which was readily perceived. Thus the zeal and courage of Gideon,
+the lofty spirit of Deb´orah, the strength of Samson, rendered them most
+fit for command in the special emergencies at which they arose. The
+“Judge” usually appeared at some time of danger or calamity, when the
+people would gladly welcome any deliverer; and his power, once conferred,
+lasted during his life.
+
+After his death a long interval usually occurred, during which “every
+man did that which was right in his own eyes,” until a new invasion
+by Philis´tines, Ammonites, or Zidonians called for a new leader. The
+chronology of this period is very uncertain, as the sacred writers only
+incidentally mention the time of events, and their records are not always
+continuous. The system of chronology was not settled until a later
+period.
+
+RULERS AND JUDGES OF ISRAEL.
+
+_Under the Theocracy._
+
+    Moses, liberator, law-giver, and judge,                       40 years
+    Joshua, conqueror of Palestine, and judge,                    25   ”
+      Anarchy, idolatry, submission to foreign rulers,    20 _or_ 30   ”
+      Servitude under Chushan-rishathaim of Mesopotamia,           8   ”
+    Othniel, deliverer and judge,                                 40   ”
+      Servitude under Eglon, king of Moab,                        18   ”
+     {Ehud,
+     {Shamgar. In these two reigns the land has rest,             80   ”
+      Servitude under Jabin, king of Canaan,                      20   ”
+    Deborah,                                                      40   ”
+      Servitude under Midian,                                      7   ”
+    Gideon,                                                       40   ”
+    Abimelech, king,                                               3   ”
+    Interregnum of unknown duration,                               —
+    Tola, judge,                                                  23   ”
+    Jair, judge,                                                  22   ”
+      Idolatry and anarchy,                                        5   ”
+      Servitude under Philistines and Ammonites,                  18   ”
+    Jephthah,                                                      6   ”
+    Ibzan,                                                         7   ”
+    Elon,                                                         10   ”
+    Abdon,                                                         8   ”
+      Servitude under Philistines,                                40   ”
+    Samson, during last half of this period, rules south-western
+        Palestine,                                                20   ”
+    Eli, high priest, and judge in south-western Palestine,       40   ”
+    Samuel, the last of the judges, arises after interregnum of,  20   ”
+
+=81.= SECOND PERIOD. The Israelites at length became dissatisfied with
+the irregular nature of their government, and demanded a king. In
+compliance with their wishes, Saul, the son of Kish, a young Benjamite
+distinguished by beauty and loftiness of stature, was chosen by Divine
+command, and anointed by Samuel, their aged prophet and judge.
+
+=82.= He found the country in nearly the same condition in which Joshua
+had left it. The people were farmers and shepherds; none were wealthy;
+even the king had “no court, no palace, no extraordinary retinue; he was
+still little more than leader in war and judge in peace.” The country was
+still ravaged by Ammonites on one side, and Philistines on the other; and
+under the recent incursions of the latter, the Israelites had become so
+weak that they had no weapons nor armor, nor even any workers in iron. (1
+Samuel xiii: 19, 20.)
+
+=83.= Saul first defeated the Ammonites, who had overrun Gilead from the
+east; then turned upon the Philistines, and humbled them in the battle of
+Michmash, so that they were driven to defend themselves at home, instead
+of invading Israel, until near the close of his reign. He waged war also
+against the Am´alekites, Mo´abites, E´domites, and the Syrians of Zobah,
+and “delivered Israel out of the hand of them that spoiled them.”
+
+=84.= He forfeited the favor of God by disobedience, and David, his
+future son-in-law, was anointed king. Jonathan, the son of Saul, was
+a firm friend and protector of David against the jealous rage of his
+father. Even the king himself, in his better moods, was moved to
+admiration and affection by the heroic character of David.
+
+=85.= In Saul’s declining years, the Philistines, under A´chish, king of
+Gath, again invaded the country, and defeated the Israelites at Mount
+Gilboa. Saul and all but one of his sons fell in the battle. Ishbo´sheth,
+the surviving son, was acknowledged king in Gilead, and ruled all the
+tribes except Judah for seven years. But David was crowned in Hebron, and
+reigned over his own tribe until the death of Ishbosheth, when he became
+ruler of the whole nation.
+
+[Illustration: JERUSALEM.]
+
+=86.= He conquered Jerusalem from the Jeb´usites, made it his capital,
+and established a kingly court such as Israel had never known. The ark
+of the covenant was removed from its temporary abode at Kirjathje´arim,
+and Jerusalem became henceforth the Holy City, the seat of the national
+religion as well as of the government.
+
+=87.= The wars of David were still more victorious than those of Saul,
+and the empire of Israel was now extended from the borders of the Red Sea
+to those of the Euphrates. Moab was rendered tributary, the Philistines
+punished, and all the Syrian tribes east and north of Palestine subdued.
+(2 Samuel viii.)
+
+=88.= Great as was the military glory of David, his fame with later
+times is derived from his psalms and songs. He was the first great poet
+of Israel, and perhaps the earliest in the world. The freshness of
+the pastures and mountain-sides among which his youth was passed, the
+assurance of Divine protection amid the singular and romantic incidents
+of his varied career, the enlargement of his horizon of thought with the
+magnificent dominion which was added to him in later life, all gave a
+richness and depth to his experience, which were reproduced in sacred
+melody, and found their fitting place in the temple service; and every
+form of Jewish and Christian worship since his time has been enriched by
+the poetry of David.
+
+=89.= This great hero and poet was not exempt from common human sins and
+follies, and the only disasters of his reign sprang directly from his
+errors. The consequences of his plurality of wives, in the jealousies
+which arose between the different families of princes, distracted his
+old age with a succession of crimes and sorrows. His sons Ab´salom and
+Adoni´jah at different times plotted against him and assumed the crown.
+Both were punished for their treason, the one by death in battle, the
+other by the sentence of Solomon after his father’s death.
+
+[Sidenote: B. C. 1015.]
+
+=90.= Solomon, the favorite son of David, succeeded to a peaceful
+kingdom. All the neighboring nations acknowledged his dignity, and the
+king of Egypt gave him his daughter in marriage. The Israelites were
+now the dominant race in Syria. Many monarchs were tributary to the
+great king, and the court of Jerusalem rivaled in its splendors those of
+Nineveh and Memphis.
+
+=91.= Commerce received a great impulse both from the enterprise and the
+luxury of the king. Hiram, king of Tyre, was a firm friend of Solomon, as
+he had been of David his father. Cedars were brought from the forests of
+Lebanon for the construction of a palace and temple. Through his alliance
+with Hiram, Solomon was admitted to a share in Tyrian trade; and by the
+influence of Pharaoh, his father-in-law, he gained from the Edomites the
+port of Ezion-ge´ber, on the Red Sea, where he caused a great fleet of
+merchant vessels to be constructed. Through these different channels of
+commerce, the rarest products of Europe, Asia, and Africa were poured
+into Jerusalem. Gold and precious stones, sandalwood and spices from
+India, silver from Spain, ivory from Africa, added to the luxury of the
+court. Horses from Egypt, now first introduced into Palestine, filled the
+royal stables. By tribute as well as trade, a constant stream of gold and
+silver flowed into Palestine.
+
+=92.= The greatest work of Solomon was the Temple on Mount Moriah, which
+became the permanent abode of the ark of the covenant, and the holy place
+toward which the prayers of Israelites, though scattered throughout the
+world, have ever turned. The temple precincts included apartments for
+the priests, and towers for defense, so that it has been said that the
+various purposes of forum, fortress, university, and sanctuary were here
+combined in one great national building. The superior skill of the
+Phœnicians in working in wood and metal, was enlisted by Solomon in the
+service of the temple. Hiram, the chief architect and sculptor, was half
+Tyrian, half Israelite, and his genius was held in equal reverence by the
+two kings who claimed his allegiance. More than seven years were occupied
+in the building of the temple. The Feast of the Dedication drew together
+a vast concourse of people from both extremities of the land—“from Hamath
+to the River of Egypt.” And so important is this event as a turning point
+in the history of the Jews, that it constitutes the beginning of their
+connected record of months and years.
+
+=93.= The early days of Solomon were distinguished by all the virtues
+which could adorn a prince. In humble consciousness of the greatness of
+the duties assigned him, and the insufficiency of his powers, he chose
+wisdom rather than long life or riches or great dominion, and he was
+rewarded by the possession of even that which he had not asked. His
+wisdom became greater than that of all the philosophers of the East; his
+knowledge of natural history, improved by the collections of rare plants
+and curious animals which he gathered from all parts of the world, was
+considered miraculous. (1 Kings iii: 5-15; iv: 29-34.)
+
+=94.= But prosperity corrupted his character. He introduced the
+licentious luxury of an Oriental court into the Holy City of David, and
+even encouraged the degrading rites of heathen worship. His commerce
+enriched himself, not his people. His enormous and expensive court was
+sustained by the most exhausting taxes. The great public works which he
+carried on withdrew vast numbers of men from the tillage of the soil, and
+thus lessened the national resources.
+
+[Sidenote: B. C. 975.]
+
+=95.= The glory of Solomon dazzled the people and silenced their
+complaints, but on the accession of his son the smothered discontent
+broke forth. Rehobo´am, instead of soothing his subjects by needed
+reforms, incensed them by his haughty refusal to lighten their burdens.
+(1 Kings xii: 13, 14.) The greater number of the people immediately
+revolted, under the lead of Jerobo´am, who established a rival
+sovereignty over the Ten Tribes, henceforth to be known as the Kingdom of
+Israel. The two tribes of Judah and Benjamin remained loyal to the house
+of David.
+
+KINGS OF THE UNITED MONARCHY.
+
+    Saul,                                           B. C. 1095-1055.
+    David at Hebron, and Ishbosheth at Mahanaim,      ”   1055-1048.
+    David, over all Israel,                           ”   1048-1015.
+    Solomon,                                          ”   1015-975.
+
+=96.= THIRD PERIOD. The Kingdom of Israel had the more extensive and
+fertile territory, and its population was double that of Judah. It
+extended from the borders of Damascus to within ten miles of Jerusalem;
+included the whole territory east of the Jordan, and held Moab as a
+tributary. But it had no capital equal in strength, beauty, or sacred
+associations to Jerusalem. The government was fixed first at She´chem,
+then at Tir´zah, then at Sama´ria.
+
+=97.= Its first king, Jeroboam, in order to break the strongest tie which
+bound the people to the house of David, made golden calves for idols, and
+set up sanctuaries in Bethel and Dan, saying, “It is too much for you to
+go up to Jerusalem; behold thy gods, O Israel, which brought thee up out
+of the land of Egypt!” A new priesthood was appointed in opposition to
+that of Aaron, and many Levites and other faithful adherents of the old
+religion emigrated into the kingdom of Judah.
+
+=98.= The people too readily fell into the snare. A succession of
+prophets, gifted with wonderful powers, strove to keep alive the true
+worship; but the poison of idolatry had entered so deeply into the
+national life, that it was ready to fall upon the first assault from
+without. In the time of Elijah, only seven thousand were left who had not
+“bowed the knee unto Baal;” and even these were unknown to the prophet,
+being compelled by persecution to conceal their religion.
+
+=99.= The kings of Israel belonged to nine different families, of which
+only two, those of Omri and Jehu, held the throne any considerable
+time. Almost all the nineteen kings had short reigns, and eight died
+by violence. The kingdom was frequently distracted by wars with Judah,
+Damascus, and Assyria. Jeroboam was aided in his war with Judah by his
+friend and patron in days of exile, Shishak, king of Egypt. Nadab, son
+of Jeroboam, was murdered by Baasha, who made himself king. This monarch
+began to build the fortress of Ramah, by which he intended to hold the
+Jewish frontier, but was compelled to desist by Ben-hadad, of Syria, who
+thus testified his friendship for Asa, king of Judah.
+
+=100.= Ahab, of the house of Omri, allied himself with Ethbaal, king of
+Tyre, by marrying his daughter Jez´ebel; and the arts of this wicked
+and idolatrous princess brought the kingdom to its lowest pitch of
+corruption. Her schemes were resisted by Elijah the Tishbite, one of the
+greatest of the prophets, who, in a memorable encounter on Mount Carmel,
+led the people to reaffirm their faith in Jehovah and exterminate the
+priests of Baal. (1 Kings xviii: 17-40.) The evil influence of Jezebel
+and the Tyrian idolatry were not removed from Israel until she herself
+and her son Jehoram had been murdered by order of Jehu, a captain of the
+guard, who became first of a new dynasty of kings. Jehu lost all his
+territories east of the Jordan in war with Hazael, of Damascus, and paid
+tribute, at least on one occasion, to Asshur-nazir-pal, of Assyria.[10]
+His son Jehoahaz also lost cities to the Syrian king; but Joash,
+the grandson of Jehu, revived the Israelite conquests. He defeated
+Ben-hadad, son of Hazael, and won back part of the conquered territory.
+His son, Jeroboam II, had the longest and most prosperous reign in the
+annals of the Ten Tribes. He not only regained all the former possessions
+of Israel, but captured Hamath and Damascus. But this was the end of
+Israelite prosperity. Two short reigns followed, each ended by an
+assassination, and then Men´ahem of Tirzah made a vain attempt to renew
+the glories of Jeroboam II by an expedition to the Euphrates. He captured
+Thapsacus, but drew upon himself the vengeance of Pul, king of Chaldæa,
+who invaded his dominions and made Menahem his vassal.
+
+=101.= In the later years of Israelite history, Tiglath-pileser, king
+of Assyria, desolated the country east of the Jordan, and threatened
+the extinction of the kingdom. Hosh´ea, the last king, acknowledged his
+dependence upon the Assyrian Empire, and agreed to pay tribute; but he
+afterward strengthened himself by an alliance with Egypt, and revolted
+against his master. Shalmaneser came to chastise this defection, and
+besieged Samaria two years. At length it fell, and the disgraceful annals
+of the Israelite kingdom came to an end.
+
+=102.= According to the despotic custom of Eastern monarchs, the people
+were transported to Media and the provinces of Assyria; and for a time
+the country was so desolate that wild beasts multiplied in the cities.
+People were afterward brought from Babylon and the surrounding country to
+take the places of the former inhabitants.
+
+KINGS OF ISRAEL.
+
+    Jeroboam,                                            B. C. 975-954.
+    Nadab,                                                 ”   954-953.
+    Baasha,                                                ”   953-930.
+    Elah,                                                  ”   930-929.
+    Zimri, slew Elah and reigned 7 days,                   ”   929.
+    Omri, captain of the host under Elah,                  ”   929-918.
+    Ahab,                                                  ”   918-897.
+    Ahaziah,                                               ”   897-896.
+    Jehoram,                                               ”   896-884.
+    Jehu,                                                  ”   884-856.
+    Jehoahaz,                                              ”   856-839.
+    Joash,                                                 ”   839-823.
+    Jeroboam II,                                           ”   823-772.
+    Zechariah, reigned 6 months,                           ”   772.
+    Shallum, murdered Zechariah and was himself murdered,  ”   772.
+    Menahem,                                               ”   772-762.
+    Pekahiah,                                              ”   762-760.
+    Pekah,                                                 ”   760-730.
+    Hoshea,                                                ”   730-721.
+
+=103.= The Kingdom of Judah began its separate existence at the same time
+with that of revolted Israel, but survived it 135 years. It consisted of
+the two entire tribes of Judah and Benjamin, with numerous refugees from
+the other ten, who were willing to sacrifice home and landed possessions
+for their faith. The people were thus closely bound together by their
+common interest in the marvelous traditions of the past and hopes for the
+future.
+
+=104.= Notwithstanding danger from numerous enemies, situated as it was
+on the direct road between the two great rival empires of Egypt and
+Assyria, this little kingdom maintained its existence during nearly four
+centuries; and, unlike Israel, was governed during all that time by kings
+of one family, the house of David.
+
+The first king, Rehoboam, saw his capital seized and plundered by
+Shi´shak, king of Egypt, and had to maintain a constant warfare with the
+revolted tribes. Abijam, his son, gained a great victory over Jeroboam,
+by which he recovered the ancient sanctuary of Bethel and many other
+towns. Asa was attacked both by the Israelites on the north and the
+Egyptians on the south, but defended himself victoriously from both. With
+all the remaining treasures of the temple and palace, he secured the
+alliance of Ben-hadad, king of Damascus, who, by attacking the northern
+cities of Israel, drew Baasha away from building the fortress of Ramah.
+The stones and timbers which Baasha had collected were carried away, by
+order of Asa, to his own cities of Geba in Benjamin, and Mizpeh in Judah.
+
+=105.= Jehosh´aphat, son of Asa, allied himself with Ahab, king of
+Israel, whom he assisted in his Syrian wars. This ill-fated alliance
+brought the poison of Tyrian idolatry into the kingdom of Judah. In
+the reign of Jehoram, who married the daughter of Ahab, Jerusalem was
+captured by Philistines and Arabs. His son, Ahaziah, while visiting
+his Israelitish kindred, was involved in the destruction of the house
+of Ahab; and after his death his mother, Athali´ah, a true daughter of
+Jezebel, murdered all her grandchildren but one, usurped the throne for
+six years, and replaced the worship of Jehovah with that of Baal. But
+Jehoi´ada, the high priest, revolted against her, placed her grandson,
+Joash, on the throne, and kept the kingdom clear, so long as he lived,
+from the taint of idolatry.
+
+=106.= Amaziah, the son of Joash, captured Pe´tra from the Edomites, but
+lost his own capital to the king of Israel, who carried away all its
+treasures. Azariah, his son, conquered the Philistines and the Arabs,
+and reëstablished on the Red Sea the port of Elath, which had fallen
+into decay since the days of Solomon. During a long and prosperous reign
+he strengthened the defenses of Jerusalem, reorganized his army, and
+improved the tillage of the country. But he presumed upon his dignity and
+the excellence of his former conduct to encroach upon the office of the
+priests, and was punished by a sudden leprosy, which separated him from
+human society the rest of his days. In the reign of Ahaz, his grandson,
+Jerusalem was besieged by the kings of Israel and Syria, who carried
+away from Judah two hundred thousand captives. Ahaz invoked the aid of
+Tiglath-pileser, king of Assyria, and became his tributary. The Assyrian
+conquered Damascus, and thus relieved Jerusalem. Ahaz filled the cities
+of Judah with altars of false gods, and left his kingdom more deeply
+stained than ever with idolatry.
+
+=107.= Hezekiah, his son, delivered the land from foreign dominion
+and from heathen superstitions. He became for a time tributary to
+Sennacherib, but afterward revolted and made an alliance with Egypt.
+During a second invasion, the army of Sennacherib was destroyed and his
+designs abandoned; but the kingdom of Judah continued to be dependent
+upon the empire.
+
+=108.= Manasseh, the son of Hezekiah, brought back all the evil which
+his father had expelled. Even the temple at Jerusalem was profaned by
+idols and their altars, and the Law disappeared from the sight and memory
+of the people, while those who tried to remain faithful to the God of
+their fathers were violently persecuted. In the midst of this impiety,
+Manasseh fell into disgrace with the Assyrian king, who suspected him of
+an intention to revolt. He was carried captive to Babylon, where he had
+leisure to reflect upon his sins and their punishment. On his return to
+Jerusalem, he confessed and forsook his errors, and wrought a religious
+reformation in his kingdom.
+
+=109.= His son Amon restored idolatry; but his life and reign were
+speedily ended by a conspiracy of his servants, who slew him in his own
+house.
+
+The assassins were punished with death, and Josiah, the rightful heir,
+ascended the throne at the age of eight years. He devoted himself with
+pious zeal and energy to the cleansing of his kingdom from the traces
+of heathen worship; carved and molten images and altars were ground to
+powder and strewn over the graves of those who had officiated in the
+sacrilegious rites. The king journeyed in person not only through the
+cities of Judah, but through the whole desolate land of Israel, as far
+as the borders of Naphtali and the upper waters of the Jordan, that he
+might witness the extermination of idolatry. This part of his work being
+completed, he returned to Jerusalem to repair the Temple of Solomon,
+which had fallen into ruins, and restore, in all its original solemnity,
+the worship of Jehovah.
+
+=110.= In the progress of repairs an inestimable manuscript was found,
+being no less than the “Book of the Law of the Lord, given by the hand of
+Moses.” These sacred writings had been so long lost, that even the king
+and the priests were ignorant of the curses that had been pronounced upon
+idolatry. The tender conscience of the king was overwhelmed with distress
+as he read the pure and perfect Law, which presented so stern a contrast
+with the morals of the people; but he was comforted with the promise that
+he should be gathered to his grave in peace before the calamities which
+the Law foretold, and the sins of Judah had deserved, should come upon
+the kingdom. In the eighteenth year of Josiah’s reign a grand passover
+was held, to which all the inhabitants of the northern kingdom who
+remained from the captivity were invited. This great religious festival,
+which signalized the birth of the nation and its first deliverance, had
+not been kept with equal solemnity since the days of Samuel the prophet.
+The entire manuscript lately discovered was read aloud by the king
+himself in the hearing of all the people, and the whole assembly swore to
+renew and maintain the covenant made of old with their fathers.
+
+[Sidenote: B. C. 634-632.]
+
+=111.= The end of Josiah’s reign was marked by two great calamities. A
+wild horde of Scythians,[11] from the northern steppes, swept over the
+land, carrying off flocks and herds. They advanced as far as As´calon, on
+the south-western coast, where they plundered the temple of Astarte, and
+were then induced to retire by the bribes of the king of Egypt. One trace
+of their incursion remained a thousand years, in the new name of the old
+city Bethshan, on the plain of Esdrae´lon. It was named by the Greeks
+Scythopolis, or the city of the Scythians. This was the first eruption of
+northern barbarians upon the old and civilized nations of southern Asia
+and Europe. Later events in the same series will occupy a large portion
+of our history.
+
+[Sidenote: B. C. 609.]
+
+=112.= The other and greater calamity of Josiah’s reign arose from a
+different quarter. Necho, king of Egypt, had become alarmed by the growth
+of Babylonian power, and was marching northward with a great army. Though
+in no way the object of his hostility, Josiah imprudently went forth to
+meet him, hoping to arrest his progress in the plain of Esdraelon. The
+battle of Megid´do followed, and Josiah was slain. Never had so great a
+sorrow befallen the Jewish people. The prophet Jeremiah, a friend and
+companion of Josiah from his youth, bewailed the nation’s loss in his
+most bitter “Lamentation”: “The breath of our nostrils, the anointed of
+the Lord, was taken in their pits, of whom we said, Under his shadow
+we shall live among the heathen.” For more than a hundred years the
+anniversary of the fatal day was observed as a time of mourning in every
+family.
+
+=113.= In the reign of Jehoiakim, son of Josiah, Nebuchadnezzar, prince
+of Babylon, gained a great victory[12] over Necho, and extended his
+father’s kingdom to the frontier of Egypt. Jehoiakim submitted to be
+absorbed into the empire, but afterward revolted and was put to death.
+
+Jehoiachin, his son, was made king; but, three months after his
+accession, was carried captive to Babylon. Zedeki´ah, reigning at
+Jerusalem, rebelled and allied himself with Apries, king of Egypt. Upon
+this, the ever active Nebuchadnezzar laid siege to the revolted city.
+In the second year it was taken and destroyed; the king and the whole
+nation, with the treasures of the temple and palace, were conveyed to
+Babylon, and the history of the Jews ceased for seventy years.
+
+KINGS OF JUDAH.
+
+    Rehoboam,                                          B. C. 975-958.
+    Abijam,                                              ”   958-956.
+    Asa,                                                 ”   956-916.
+    Jehoshaphat,                                         ”   916-892.
+    Jehoram,                                             ”   892-885.
+    Ahaziah, slain by Jehu after 1 year,                 ”   885-884.
+    Athaliah, murders her grandchildren and reigns,      ”   884-878.
+    Joash, son of Ahaziah,                               ”   878-838.
+    Amaziah,                                             ”   838-809.
+    Azariah, or Uzziah,                                  ”   809-757.
+    Jotham,                                              ”   757-742.
+    Ahaz,                                                ”   742-726.
+    Hezekiah,                                            ”   726-697.
+    Manasseh,                                            ”   697-642.
+    Amon,                                                ”   642-640.
+    Josiah,                                              ”   640-609.
+    Jehoahaz, dethroned by Necho after 3 months,         ”   609.
+    Jehoiakim, tributary to Necho 4 years,               ”   609-598.
+    Jehoiachin,                                          ”   598-597.
+    Zedekiah,                                            ”   597-586.
+
+
+RECAPITULATION.
+
+    The Phrygians, earliest settlers of Asia Minor, were active
+    in tillage and trade, and zealous in their peculiar religion.
+    Lydia afterward became the chief power in the peninsula. At the
+    end of three dynasties, it had reached its greatest glory under
+    Crœsus, when it was conquered by Cyrus, and became a province
+    of Persia, B. C. 546.
+
+    The first great commercial communities in the world were the
+    Phœnician cities, of which Sidon and Tyre were the chief; their
+    trade extending by sea from Britain to Ceylon, and by land to
+    the interior of three continents. Tyrian dyes, and vessels of
+    gold, silver, bronze, and glass were celebrated. Phœnicia was
+    subject four hundred years to the Assyrian Empire, and became
+    independent at its fall, only to pass under the power of Necho
+    of Egypt, and, in turn, to be subdued by Nebuchadnezzar of
+    Babylon. Baal, Astarte, Melcarth, and the marine deities were
+    objects of Phœnician worship.
+
+    Syria Proper was divided into five states, of which Damascus
+    was the oldest and most important.
+
+    The Hebrew nation began its existence under the rule of
+    Moses, who led his people forth from Egypt, and through the
+    Arabian Desert, in a journey of forty years. Joshua conquered
+    Palestine by the two decisive battles of Beth-horon and the
+    waters of Merom, and divided the land among the twelve tribes.
+    Judges ruled Israel nearly six hundred years.
+
+    Saul, being anointed as king, subdued the enemies of the Jews;
+    but, becoming disobedient, he was slain in battle, and David
+    became king, first of Judah, and afterward of all Israel. He
+    made Jerusalem his capital, and extended his dominion over
+    Syria and Moab, and eastward to the Euphrates. His sacred
+    songs are the source of his enduring fame. Solomon inherited
+    the kingdom, which he enriched by commerce and adorned with
+    magnificent public works, both for sacred and secular uses. The
+    Dedication of the Temple is the great era in Hebrew chronology.
+    The wisdom of Solomon was widely famed, but the luxury of his
+    court exhausted his kingdom, and on the accession of Rehoboam
+    ten tribes revolted, only Judah and Benjamin remaining to the
+    house of David.
+
+    Jeroboam fixed his capital at Shechem, and the shrines of
+    his false gods at Bethel and Dan. In spite of the faithful
+    warnings of the prophets, the kingdom of Israel became
+    idolatrous. The nineteen kings who ruled B. C. 975-721 belonged
+    to nine different families. Ahab and Jezebel persecuted true
+    believers and established Tyrian idolatry; but their race was
+    exterminated and Jehu became king. The Ten Tribes reached their
+    greatest power and wealth under Jeroboam II. In the reign of
+    Menahem they became subject to Pul, of Chaldæa. A revolt of
+    Hoshea against Assyria led to the capture of Samaria, and the
+    captivity of both king and people.
+
+    The kingdom of Judah, with a smaller territory, had a
+    people more united in faith and loyalty, and was ruled four
+    hundred years by descendants of David. Jehoshaphat made a
+    close alliance with Ahab, which brought many calamities upon
+    Judah. In the reign of Jehoram, Jerusalem was taken by Arabs
+    and Philistines; and after the death of Ahaziah, Athaliah,
+    daughter of Jezebel, usurped the throne. Joash, her grandson,
+    was protected and crowned by Jehoiada, the high priest. The
+    prosperity of Judah was restored by the conquests and efficient
+    policy of Azariah. Ahaz became tributary to Tiglath-pileser,
+    of Assyria, and degraded his kingdom with idolatry. Hezekiah
+    resisted both the religion and the supremacy of the heathen.
+    Manasseh was carried captive to Babylon, and on his return
+    reformed his administration. Josiah cleansed the land from
+    marks of idolatry, rebuilt the Temple, discovered the Book
+    of the Law, and renewed the celebration of the Passover. The
+    Scythians invaded Palestine. Josiah was slain in the battle of
+    Megiddo, and his sons became vassals of Egypt. Nebuchadnezzar
+    subdued both Egypt and Palestine, captured Jerusalem, and
+    transported two successive kings and the mass of the people to
+    Babylon.
+
+
+QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW.
+
+BOOK I.—PART I.
+
+   1. What are the sources of historical information?              §§ 1-4.
+   2. Describe the character and movements of the three families
+        of the sons of Noah.                                         5, 6.
+   3. Into what periods may history be divided?                      7, 8.
+   4. Name six primeval monarchies in Western Asia.
+   5. What were the distinguishing features of the Chaldæan
+        Monarchy?                                                      26.
+   6. Name the principal Assyrian kings of the Second Period.       29-31.
+   7. Who was Semiramis?                                               30.
+   8. Describe the founder of the Lower Assyrian Empire.               32.
+   9. What memorials exist of Sargon?                                  32.
+  10. Describe the career of Sennacherib.                              33.
+  11. What was the condition of Assyria under Asshur-bani-pal?         34.
+  12. What under his son?                                              35.
+  13. What was the early history of Media?                         37, 38.
+  14. What of Phraortes?                                               39.
+  15. Describe the reign of Cyaxares.                              40, 41.
+  16.          The character of the Babylonians.                   43, 44.
+  17.          The career of Merodach-baladan.                         45.
+  18.          The empire of Nabopolassar.                             46.
+  19.          The conquests and reverses of the greatest
+                 Babylonian monarch.                                47-52.
+  20.          The decline and fall of Babylon.                    53, 54.
+  21. Relate the whole history of Lydia.                           58, 59.
+  22. Describe the Phœnician cities and their commerce.             61-64.
+  23. To what four kingdoms were they successively subject?         66-68.
+  24. Describe the religion of the Phœnicians.                     69, 70.
+  25. What were the divisions of Syria Proper?                     71, 72.
+  26. Describe the rise of the Jewish nation.                      73, 74.
+  27.          Their conquest of Palestine.                        76, 77.
+  28.          Their government during the First Period.               80.
+  29.          The reign of Saul.                                   81-83.
+  30.          The conquests and character of David.                84-89.
+  31.          The acts and wisdom of Solomon.                      90-94.
+  32. What changes occurred at his death?                              95.
+  33. Compare the two kingdoms.                          96-100, 105, 106.
+  34. What was the policy of Jeroboam?                             97, 98.
+  35. Describe the reign of Ahab.                                     101.
+  36. What kings of Israel had dealing with Assyria?             100, 101.
+  37. Mention three kings of Judah who had wars with Israel.          104.
+  38.         Three in alliance with Israel.                          105.
+  39. Describe the reign of Azariah; of Ahaz, Hezekiah, Manasseh. 106-108.
+  40.          The events of Josiah’s reign.                      109-112.
+  41.          The relations of three kings with Babylon.             113.
+
+    NOTE.—A discrepancy will be found between the Egyptian and
+    the Hebrew chronology. The latter, before the accession of
+    Saul, is mainly conjectural; as it is possible that two or
+    more judges were reigning at the same time in different parts
+    of the land. The periods of the several judges and of foreign
+    servitude on p. 36, are copied literally from the Bible; the
+    times of inter-regnum are conjectured, but probably fall below
+    rather than exceed the truth. _If continuous_, these periods
+    added together make 535 years,—a longer interval than can be
+    found between the reign of Menephthah and that of Saul (§§ 79
+    and 154.) It may here be said that many historians believe the
+    “Pharaoh’s daughter” who rescued Moses to have been Mesphra or
+    Amen-set (§ 146.) In this case, Thothmes IV was the Pharaoh of
+    the Exodus, and we gain nearly 200 years for the transitional
+    period of the Hebrews.
+
+    It may be hoped that Egyptian MSS. now in the hands of diligent
+    and accomplished scholars will soon throw light on this
+    interesting question.
+
+
+
+
+PART II. AFRICAN NATIONS.
+
+
+GEOGRAPHICAL OUTLINE OF AFRICA.
+
+=114.= The continent of Africa differs in many important respects from
+that of Asia. The latter, extending into three zones, has its greatest
+extent in the most favored of all, the North Temperate. Africa is
+almost wholly within the tropics, only a small portion of its northern
+and southern extremities entering the two temperate zones, where their
+climate is most nearly torrid. Asia has the loftiest mountains on the
+globe, from which flow great rivers spreading fertility and affording
+every means of navigation. Africa has but two great rivers, the Nile and
+the Niger, and but few mountains of remarkable elevation.
+
+=115.= Africa is thus the hottest, driest, and least accessible of the
+continents. One-fifth of its surface is covered by the great sea of sand
+which stretches from the Atlantic nearly to the Red Sea. Much of the
+interior consists of marshes and impenetrable forests, haunted only by
+wild beasts and unfit for human habitation. With the exception of a very
+few favored portions, Africa is therefore unsuited to the growth of great
+states; and it is only through two of these, Egypt and Carthage, that it
+claims an important part in ancient history.
+
+=116.= NORTHERN AFRICA alone was known to the ancients, and its features
+were well marked and peculiar. Close along the Mediterranean lay a narrow
+strip of fertile land, watered by short streams which descended from
+the Atlas range. These mountains formed a rocky and scantily inhabited
+region to the southward, though producing in certain portions abundance
+of dates. Next came the Great Desert, varied only by a few small and
+scattered oases, where springs of water nourished a rich vegetation.
+South of the Sahara was a fertile inland country, near whose large rivers
+and lakes were cities and a numerous population; but these central
+African states were only visited by an occasional caravan which crossed
+the desert from the north, and had no political connection with the rest
+of the world.
+
+=117.= In the western portion of Northern Africa, the mountains rise more
+gradually by a series of natural terraces from the sea, and the fertile
+country here attains a width of two hundred miles. This well watered,
+fruitful, and comparatively healthful region, is one of the most favored
+on the globe. In ancient times it was one vast corn-field from the Atlas
+to the Mediterranean. Here the native kingdom of Maurita´nia flourished;
+and after it was subdued by the Romans, the same fertile fields afforded
+bread to the rest of the civilized world.
+
+=118.= Eastward from Mauritania the plain becomes narrower, the rivers
+fewer, and the soil less fertile, so that no great state, even if it had
+originated there, could have long maintained itself. The north-eastern
+corner of the continent, however, is the richest and most valuable of all
+the lands it contains. This is owing to the great river which, rising in
+the highlands of Abyssin´ia, and fed by the perpetual rains of Equatorial
+Africa, rolls its vast body of waters from south to north, through a
+valley three thousand miles in length. Every year in June it begins to
+rise; from August to December it overflows the country, and deposits a
+soil so rich that the farmer has only to cast his grain upon the retiring
+waters, and abundant harvests spring up without further tillage.
+
+=119.= The soil of Egypt was called by its inhabitants the “Gift of the
+Nile.” In a climate almost without rain, this country without its river
+would, indeed, have been only a ravine in the rocky and sandy desert;
+as barren as Sahara itself. The prosperity of the year was, from the
+earliest times, accurately measured by the Nilometers at Mem´phis and
+Elephan´tine. If the water rose less than eighteen feet, famine ensued;
+a rise of from eighteen to twenty-four feet betokened moderate harvests;
+twenty-seven feet were considered “a good Nile;” a flood of thirty feet
+was ruinous, for, in such a case, houses were undermined, cattle swept
+away, the land rendered too spongy for the following seed-time, the labor
+of the farmer was delayed, and often fevers were bred by the stagnant and
+lingering waters. Usually, however, the Nile was the great benefactor
+of the Egyptians, and was considered a fit emblem of the creating and
+preserving Osi´ris. Its waters were carefully distributed by canals and
+regulated by dykes. During the inundation, the country appeared like a
+great inland lake girdled by mountains. Lower Egypt, or the Delta, was
+compared by Herodotus to the Grecian Archipelago, dotted with villages
+which appeared like white islands above the expanse of waters.
+
+=120.= Lower Egypt is a vast plain; Upper Egypt a narrowing valley. The
+fertile portion of the latter occupies only a part of the space between
+the Lib´yan Desert and the sea. In its widest part it is less than
+eleven, in its narrowest only five miles in width; and in some places
+the granite or limestone cliff springs directly from the river. Being so
+well fitted to support a numerous people, the whole valley of the Nile,
+through Nubia and Abyssinia as well as Egypt, was very early colonized
+from the opposite shores of Asia. The hair, features, and form of the
+skull represented in the human figures on the monuments, prove the
+dominant race in these countries to have been of the same great family
+with the people on the neighboring peninsula of Arabia.
+
+=121.= Before the conquests of the Persians, Northern Africa was divided
+between five nations: the Egyptians, Ethiopians, Phœnicians, Libyans, and
+Greeks.
+
+=122.= The ETHIOPIANS occupied the Nile Valley above Egypt, including
+what is now known as Abyssinia. The great plateau between the headwaters
+of the Nile and the Red Sea is rendered fertile by frequent and abundant
+rains; and the many streams which descend from it to the Nile cause in
+part the yearly overflow which fertilizes Egypt. Mer´oë was the chief
+city of the Ethiopians. Some learned men have supposed its monuments of
+architecture and sculpture to be even older than those of Egypt.
+
+=123.= Arabian traditions say that the inhabitants of the northern coasts
+of Africa were descendants of the Canaanites whom the Children of Israel
+drove out of Palestine. As late as the fourth century after Christ,
+two pillars of white marble near Tangier still bore the inscription in
+Phœnician characters: “We are they that fled from before the face of the
+robber Joshua, the son of Nun.” Whether or not this legend expressed
+a historical fact, it expressed the wide-spread belief of the people;
+and it is well known by other evidence that the African coasts of the
+Mediterranean were very early dotted with PHŒNICIAN settlements, such as
+the two Hip´pos, U´tica, Tu´nes, Hadrume´tum, Lep´tis, and greatest of
+all, though among the latest, Carthage.
+
+=124.= The LIBYANS occupied a greater portion of Northern Africa than any
+other nation, extending from the borders of Egypt to the Atlantic Ocean,
+and from the Great Desert, with the exception of the foreign settlements
+on the coast, to the Mediterranean Sea. They had, however, comparatively
+little power, consisting chiefly as they did of wandering tribes,
+destitute of settled government or fixed habitations. In the western
+and more fertile portion, certain tribes of Libyans cultivated the soil
+and became more nearly civilized; but these were soon subjected to the
+growing power of the Phœnician colonies.
+
+=125.= The GREEKS possessed a colony on that point of Northern Africa
+which approached most nearly to their own peninsula. They founded Cyre´ne
+about B. C. 630, and Barca about seventy years later. They had also a
+colony at Naucra´tis in Egypt, and probably upon the greater oasis. The
+history of these Grecian settlements will be found in Book III.
+
+
+HISTORY OF EGYPT.
+
+PERIODS.
+
+      I. The Old Empire, from earliest times to         B. C. 1900.
+     II. Middle Empire, or that of the Shepherd Kings,    ”   1900-1525.
+    III. The New Empire,                                  ”   1525-525.
+
+=126.= From the island of Elephantine to the sea, a distance of 526
+miles the Nile Valley was occupied by EGYPT, a monarchy the most
+ancient, with a history among the most wonderful in the world. While
+other nations may be watched in their progress from ignorance and
+rudeness to whatever art they have possessed, Egypt appears in the
+earliest morning light of history “already skillful, erudite, and
+strong.” Some of her buildings are older than the Migration of Abraham,
+but the oldest of them show a skill in the quarrying, transporting,
+carving, and joining of stone which modern architects admire but can not
+surpass.
+
+=127.= FIRST PERIOD. The early Egyptians believed that there had been a
+time when their ancestors were savages and cannibals, dwelling in caves
+in those ridges of sandstone which border the Nile Valley on the east;
+and that their greatest benefactors were Osiris and Isis, who elevated
+them into a devout and civilized nation, eating bread, drinking wine and
+beer, and planting the olive. The worship of Osiris and Isis, therefore,
+became prevalent throughout Egypt, while the several cities and provinces
+had each its own local divinities. According to Manetho, a native
+historian of later times,[13] gods, spirits, demigods, and _manes_, or
+the souls of men, were the first rulers of Egypt. This is merely an
+ancient way of saying that the earliest history of Egypt, as of most
+other countries, is shrouded in ignorance and fabulous conjecture.
+
+=128.= Instead of commencing its existence as a united kingdom, Egypt
+consisted at first of a number of scattered _nomes_, or petty states,
+each having for its nucleus a temple and a numerous establishment of
+priests. Fifty-three of these nomes are mentioned by one historian,
+thirty-six by another. As one became more powerful, it sometimes
+swallowed up its neighbors, and grew into a kingdom which embraced a
+large portion or even the whole of the country.
+
+=129.= The first mortal king of Mis´raim, the “double land,” was Menes,
+of This. His inheritance was in Upper Egypt, but by his talents and
+exploits he made himself master of the Lower, and selected there a site
+for his new capital. For this purpose he drained a marshy tract which at
+certain seasons had been overflowed by the Nile, made a dyke to confine
+the river within its regular channel, and on the reclaimed ground built
+the city of Memphis. Menes may therefore be considered as the founder of
+the empire.
+
+=130.= Athothes (Thoth), his son and successor, was skilled in medicine
+and wrote works on anatomy. Of the six following kings in regular descent
+who form this dynasty little is known, and it is even possible that they
+belong rather to tradition than to ascertained history. After the two
+Thoths came Mnevis, or Uenephes, who bore the name of the Sacred Calf
+of Heliopolis. He is said, nevertheless, to have been a high-minded,
+intelligent man, and the most affable prince on record. He built the
+pyramid of Koko´me, whose site can not now be identified. During his
+reign there was famine in Egypt.
+
+=131.= The Third Dynasty reigned at Memphis; its founder was Sesorcheres
+the Giant. The third king, Sesonchosis, was a wise and peaceful monarch,
+who advanced the three arts of writing, medicine, and architecture,
+and was celebrated by a grateful people in hymns and ballads as among
+their greatest benefactors. He introduced the fashion of building with
+hewn stones, previous structures having been made either of rough,
+irregular stones or of brick. He was known to the Greeks as the “peaceful
+Sesostris,” while the two later monarchs who bore this name were great
+warriors and conquerors.
+
+=132.= His son, Sasychis (Mares-sesorcheres), was a celebrated law-giver.
+He is said to have organized the worship of the gods, and to have
+invented geometry and astronomy. He also made that singular law by which
+a debtor might give his father’s mummy as security for a debt. If the
+money was not paid, neither the debtor nor his father could ever rest
+in the family sepulcher, and this was considered the greatest possible
+disgrace.
+
+[Sidenote: B. C. 2440.]
+
+=133.= The monumental and more certain history begins with the Second,
+Fourth, and Fifth Dynasties of Manetho, which reigned simultaneously in
+Lower, Middle, and Upper Egypt. Of these the Fourth Dynasty, reigning at
+Memphis, was most powerful, the others being in some degree dependent.
+Proofs of its greatness are found in the vast structures of stone which
+overspread Middle Egypt between the Libyan Mountains and the Nile; for
+the Fourth Dynasty may be remembered as that of the pyramid-builders.
+
+=134.= The name of Soris, the first of the family, has been found upon
+the northern pyramid of Abousir. Suphis I, or Shufu, was the Cheops of
+Herodotus, and is regarded as the builder of the Great Pyramid. His
+brother, Suphis II, or Nou-shufu, had part in this work. He reigned
+jointly with Suphis I, and alone, after his death, for three years. These
+two kings were oppressors of the people and despisers of the gods. They
+crushed the former by the severe toils involved in their public works,
+and ordered the temples of the latter to be closed and their worship to
+cease.
+
+=135.= Mencheres the Holy, son of Suphis I, had, like his father, a
+reign of sixty-three years, but differed from him in being a good and
+humane sovereign. He re-opened the temples which his father had closed,
+restored religious ceremonies of sacrifice and praise, and put an end to
+the oppressive labors. He was therefore much venerated by the people, and
+was the subject of many ballads and hymns. The four remaining kings of
+the Fourth Dynasty are known to us only by names and dates. The family
+included eight kings in all, and the probable aggregate of their reigns
+is 220 years.
+
+=136.= The kings of the Second Dynasty ruling Middle Egypt from This
+or Abydus, and those of the Fifth ruling Upper Egypt from the Isle of
+Elephantine, were probably related by blood to the powerful sovereigns
+of Lower Egypt, and the tombs of all three families are found in the
+neighborhood of Memphis. The structure of the Pyramids shows great
+advancement in science and the mechanical arts. Each is placed so as
+exactly to face the cardinal points, and the Great Pyramid is precisely
+upon the 30th parallel of latitude. The wonderful accuracy of the latter
+in its astronomical adjustments, has led a few profound scholars[14] of
+the present day to believe that it could only have been built by Divine
+revelation; not by the Egyptians, but by a people led from Asia for the
+purpose, the object being to establish a perfectly trustworthy system of
+weights and measures.
+
+=137.= The Arabian copper-mines of the Sinaitic peninsula were worked
+under the direction of the Pyramid kings. At this period the arts had
+reached their highest perfection. Drawing,[15] sculpture, and writing, as
+well as modes of living and general civilization, were much the same as
+fifteen centuries later.
+
+=138.= B. C. 2220. While a sixth royal family succeeded the
+pyramid-builders at Memphis, the second and fifth continued to reign at
+This and Elephantis, while two more arose at Heracleop´olis and Thebes;
+so that Egypt was now divided into five separate kingdoms, the Theban
+becoming gradually the most powerful. Thus weakened by division, and
+perhaps exhausted by the great architectural works which had withdrawn
+the people from the practice of arms, the country easily became the prey
+of nomad tribes from the neighboring regions of Syria and Arabia. These
+were called Hyk´sos, or Shepherd Kings. They entered Lower Egypt from the
+north-east, and soon became masters of the country from Memphis to the
+sea.
+
+=139.= SECOND PERIOD. B. C. 1900-1525. Native dynasties continued for a
+time to reign in Middle and Upper Egypt; and even in the heart of the
+Delta a new kingdom sprang up at Xo´is, which maintained itself during
+the whole time that the Shepherds were in the land. A large number of the
+enslaved Egyptians continued to cultivate the soil, paying tribute to
+the conquerors; and, in time, the example of their good order may have
+mollified the fierce invaders. The latter built themselves a strongly
+fortified camp, Ava´ris, in the eastern portion of the Delta, near the
+later city of Pelusium.
+
+=140.= At the same period with the invasion, a Twelfth Egyptian Dynasty,
+the Osortasidæ, arose at Thebes, and became one of the most powerful
+tribes of native rulers. They obtained paramount authority over the
+kingdoms of Elephantine and Heracleopolis, held the Sinaitic Peninsula,
+and extended their victorious arms into Arabia and Ethiopia. Sesortasen I
+ruled all Upper Egypt. Under the second and third sovereigns of that name
+the kingdom reached its highest prosperity. The third Sesortasen enriched
+the country by many canals, and left monuments of his power at Senneh,
+near the southern border of the empire, which still excite the wonder of
+travelers. The largest edifice and the most useful work in Egypt were
+executed by his successor, Ammenemes III. The first was the Labyrinth
+in the Faioom, which Herodotus visited, and declared that it surpassed
+all human works. It contained three thousand rooms; fifteen hundred of
+these were under ground, and contained the mummies of kings and of the
+sacred crocodiles. The walls of the fifteen hundred upper apartments
+were of solid stone, entirely covered with sculpture. The other work of
+Ammenemes was the Lake Moëris. This was a natural reservoir formed near a
+bend of the Nile; but he so improved it by art as to retain and carefully
+distribute the gifts of the river, and thus insure the fruitfulness of
+the province.
+
+=141.= A weaker race succeeded, and the calamities of Lower Egypt were
+now extended throughout the land. The Hyksos advanced to the southward,
+and the fugitive kings of Thebes sought refuge in Ethiopia. With the
+exception of the Xoites, intrenched in the marshes of the Delta, all
+Egypt became for a time subject to the Shepherds. They burned cities,
+destroyed temples, and made slaves of all the people whom they did
+not put to death. Two native dynasties reigned at Memphis, and one at
+Heracleopolis, but they were tributary to the conquerors.
+
+=142.= Some have supposed that the Pyramids were erected by these
+Shepherd Kings. But the best authorities describe the race as rude,
+ignorant, and destitute of arts, as compared with the Egyptians, either
+before or after their invasion; and after the long deluge of barbarism
+was swept back, we find religion, language, and art—kept, doubtless,
+and cultivated in seclusion by the learned class—precisely as they were
+before the interruption. The absence of records during this period
+would alone prove the lack of learning in the ruling race. Baron Bunsen
+supposes the Hyksos to have been identical with the Philistines of
+Palestine. Some of them took refuge in Crete when they were driven out
+of Egypt, and re-appeared in Palestine from the west about the same time
+that the Israelites entered it from the east. In any case, a gap of
+nearly four hundred years occurs in Egyptian history between the old and
+the new empires, during which the Holy City of Thebes was in the hands of
+barbarians, the annals ceased, and the names of the kings, either native
+or foreign, are for the most part unknown.
+
+=143.= THIRD PERIOD. B. C. 1525-525. After their long humiliation, the
+people of Egypt rallied for a great national revolt, under the Theban
+king Amo´sis, and drove the invaders, after a hard-fought contest, from
+their soil. Now came the brightest period of Egyptian history. Amosis
+was rewarded with the undivided sovereignty, and became the founder of
+the Eighteenth Dynasty. Memphis was made the imperial capital. Many
+temples were repaired, as we may learn from memoranda preserved in the
+quarries of Syene and the Upper Nile. Aahmes, the wife of Amosis, bears
+the surname Nefru-ari, “the good, glorious woman,” and seems to have been
+held in the highest honor ever ascribed to a queen. She was a Theban
+princess of Ethiopian blood, and probably had many provinces for her
+dowry. Amosis died B. C. 1499.
+
+=144.= For eight hundred years Egypt continued a single, consolidated
+kingdom. During this time art obtained its highest perfection; the great
+temple-palaces of Thebes were built; numerous obelisks, “fingers of the
+sun,” pointed heavenward; and the people, who had long groaned under a
+cruel servitude, enjoyed, under the Eighteenth, Nineteenth, and Twentieth
+Dynasties, the protection of a mild and well-organized government.
+
+=145.= It may be feared that the Egyptians wreaked upon a captive nation
+within their own borders their resentment against their late oppressors.
+The Hebrews grew and multiplied in Egypt, and their lives were made
+bitter with hard bondage. Many of the vast brick constructions of the
+Eighteenth and Nineteenth Dynasties may have been erected by the captive
+Hebrews, who are expressly said to have built the two treasure cities,
+Pithom and Raamses.
+
+=146.= Royal women were treated with higher respect in Egypt than in any
+other ancient monarchy. Thothmes I, the third king of the Eighteenth
+Dynasty, was succeeded by his daughter, Mesphra or Amen-set, who reigned
+as regent for her younger brother, Thothmes II. He died a minor, and she
+held the same office, or, perhaps, reigned jointly with her next younger
+brother, Thothmes III; but not with his cordial consent, for when she,
+too, died, after a regency of twenty-two years, he caused her name and
+image to be effaced from all the sculptures in which they had appeared
+together.
+
+=147.= B. C. 1461-1414. This king, Thothmes III, is distinguished not
+more for his foreign wars than for the magnificent palaces and temples
+which he built at Karnac, Thebes, Memphis, Heliopolis, Coptos, and other
+places. Hardly an ancient city in Egypt or Nubia is unmarked by remains
+of his edifices. The history of his twelve successive campaigns is
+recorded in sculpture upon the walls of his palace at Thebes. He drove
+the Hyksos from their last stronghold, Ava´ris, where they had been
+shut up since the days of his father. The two obelisks near Alexandria,
+which some Roman wit called Cleopa´tra’s Needles, bear the name of this
+king. His military expeditions extended both to the north and south;
+inscriptions on his monuments declare that he took tribute from Nineveh,
+Hit (or Is), and Babylon.
+
+[Sidenote: B. C. 1400-1364.]
+
+=148.= His grandson, Thothmes IV, caused the carving of the great Sphinx
+near the Pyramids. Amunoph III, his successor, was a great and powerful
+monarch. He adorned the country by magnificent buildings, and improved
+its agriculture by the construction of tanks or reservoirs to regulate
+irrigation. The two _Colossi_ near Thebes, one of which is known as the
+vocal Memnon, date from his reign; but the Amenophe´um, of which they
+were ornaments, is now in ruins. Amunoph maintained the warlike fame of
+his ancestors by expeditions into all the countries invaded by Thothmes
+III. He is styled upon his monuments, “Pacificator of Egypt and Tamer of
+the Libyan Shepherds.” He built the gorgeous palace of Luxor, which he
+connected with the temple at Karnac by an avenue of a thousand sphinxes.
+He made a similar avenue also at Thebes, lined with colossal sitting
+statues of the cat-headed goddess Pasht (Bubastis).
+
+[Sidenote: B. C. 1327-1324.]
+
+=149.= B. C. 1364-1327. In the reign of Horus, his son, the nation was
+distracted by many claimants for the crown, most of whom were princes or
+princesses of the blood royal. Horus outlived his rivals and destroyed
+their monuments. He had successful foreign wars in Africa, and made
+additions to the palaces at Karnac and Luxor. With the next king,
+Rathotis (or Resitot), the Eighteenth Dynasty ended.
+
+=150.= B. C. 1324-1322. Rameses I, founder of the Nineteenth Dynasty,
+was descended from the first two kings of the eighteenth. His son,
+Seti, inherited all the national hatred toward the Syrian invaders, and
+“avenged the shame of Egypt on Asia.” He reconquered Syria, which had
+revolted some forty years earlier, and carried his victorious arms as
+far as the borders of Cilicia and the banks of the Euphrates. He built
+the great Hall at Karnac—in which the whole Cathedral of Notre Dame, at
+Paris, could stand without touching either walls or ceiling—and his tomb
+is the most beautiful of all the sepulchers of the kings.
+
+=151.= B. C. 1311-1245. Rameses II, the Great, reigned sixty-six years;
+and his achievements in war and peace fill a large space in the records
+of his time, in which fact and fiction are often intermingled by his
+flatterers. During his father’s life-time, he began his military career
+by subduing both Libya and Arabia. His ambition being thus inflamed, he
+had no sooner succeeded to the throne than he resolved upon the conquest
+of the world. He provided for the security of his kingdom during his
+absence, by re-dividing the country into thirty-six nomes and appointing
+a governor for each. He then equipped an immense army, which is said to
+have included 600,000 foot, 24,000 horse, and 27,000 war chariots. Having
+conquered Ethiopia, Rameses made a fleet of four hundred vessels, the
+first which any Egyptian king had possessed, and sailing down the Red Sea
+to the Arabian, continued his voyage as far as India. He returned only to
+make fresh preparations, and lead another great army eastward beyond the
+Ganges, and onward till he reached a new ocean. Columns were every-where
+erected recording the victories of the monarch, and lauding the courage
+or shaming the cowardice of those who had encountered him.
+
+[Illustration: FIGURE OF AMUNOPH III, NEAR THEBES.
+
+_Called by the Greeks the Vocal Memnon. It was 47 feet in height, or 53
+feet including the pedestal._]
+
+=152.= Returning from his Asiatic conquests, Rameses entered Europe and
+subdued the Thracians; then, after nine years absence, during which he
+had covered himself with the glory of innumerable easy victories, he
+reëntered Egypt. He brought with him a long train of captives, whom he
+intended to employ upon the architectural works which he had already
+projected. Among the most celebrated are the Rock Temples of Ipsambul,
+in Nubia, whose sides are covered with bas-reliefs representing the
+victories of Sesostris; the Ramesse´um, or Memnonium, at Thebes; and
+additions to the palace at Karnac. He built, also, a wall near the
+eastern frontier of Egypt, from Pelusium to Heliopolis, and, perhaps,
+even as far as Sye´ne, to prevent future invasions from Arabia. More
+monuments exist of Rameses II than of any other Pharaoh; but the strength
+of the New Empire was exhausted by these extraordinary efforts in war and
+building. The king tormented both his subjects and his captives, using
+them merely as instruments of his passion for military and architectural
+display. It was this king who drove the Israelites to desperation by his
+inhuman oppressions, especially by commanding every male child to be
+drowned in the Nile. (Exodus i: 8-14, 22.)
+
+=153.= In the great hall of Abydus, or This, Rameses is represented as
+offering sacrifice to fifty-two kings of his own race, he himself, in
+a glorified form, being of the number. The sculpture is explained by
+an inscription: “A libation to the Lords of the West, by the offerings
+of their son, the king Rameses, in his abode.” The reply of the royal
+divinities is as follows: “The speech of the Lords of the West, to their
+son the Creator and Avenger, the Lord of the World, the Sun who conquers
+in truth. We ourselves elevate our arms to receive thy offerings, and all
+other good and pure things in thy palace. We are renewed and perpetuated
+in the paintings of thy house,” etc.
+
+=154.= The son of Rameses II, Menephthah, or Amenephthes, was the
+Pharaoh of the Exodus. The escaping Israelites passed along the bank
+of the canal made by the Great King, and thus were supplied with water
+for their multitude both of men and beasts. By the dates always found
+upon Egyptian buildings, we learn that architectural labors ceased
+for twenty years; and this contrast to the former activity affords an
+interesting coincidence with the Scriptural narrative. Josephus,[16]
+also, quotes from Manetho a tradition, that the son of the great Rameses
+was overthrown by a revolt, under Osarsiph (Moses), of a race of lepers
+who had been grievously oppressed by him; and that he fled into Ethiopia
+with his son, then only five years old, who, thirteen years later,
+recovered the kingdom as Sethos II. To express their contempt for their
+former captives, the Egyptian historians always refer to the Israelites
+as lepers. With Seti, or Sethos II, the house of the great Rameses became
+extinct.
+
+=155.= B. C. 1219. Rameses III, the first of the Twentieth Dynasty,
+maintained extensive wars, both by sea and land. His four sons all bore
+his name and came successively to the throne, but there are no great
+events to signalize their reigns. Six or seven kings of the same name
+followed, and the family ended about B. C. 1085.
+
+=156.= During this period Egypt rapidly declined, as well in intellectual
+as military power. Her foreign enterprises ceased; no additions were made
+to the magnificent buildings of former ages; and sculpture and painting,
+instead of deriving new life from the study of Nature, were compelled
+to copy the old set forms or confine themselves to dull and meaningless
+imitations.
+
+=157.= The Twenty-first Dynasty was a priestly race, whose capital was
+Ta´nis, or Zo´an, in Lower Egypt, but who were supreme throughout the
+country. They wore sacerdotal robes, and called themselves High Priests
+of Amun. One of them gave his daughter in marriage to Solomon. (1 Kings
+iii: 1; ix: 16.) The seven kings of this dynasty had usually short
+reigns, marked by few events. B. C. 1085-990.
+
+[Sidenote: B. C. 972.]
+
+[Sidenote: B. C. 956-933.]
+
+=158.= B. C. 993-972. Sheshonk, or Shishak, the founder of the
+Twenty-second Dynasty, revived the military power of the nation. He
+married the daughter of Pisham II, the last king of the Tanite race, and
+took upon himself, also, the title of High Priest of Amun, but beyond
+this there are no signs of priesthood in this line. Bubastis, in the
+Delta, was the seat of his government. It was to him that Jerobo´am fled
+when plotting to make himself king of Israel; and Shishak afterward made
+an expedition against Judæa for the purpose of confirming Jeroboam on his
+throne. He plundered Jerusalem and received the submission of Rehoboam.
+Osorkon II, the fourth king of this dynasty, and an Ethiopian prince, was
+probably the Zerah of Scripture, who invaded Syria, and was defeated by
+Asa, king of Judah, in the battle of Mareshah. (2 Chron. xiv: 9-14.)
+
+=159.= At the expiration of this line in the person of Takelot II, about
+B. C. 847, a rival family sprang up at Tanis, forming the Twenty-third
+Dynasty. It comprised only four kings, none of whom were famous. B. C.
+847-758.
+
+[Sidenote: B. C. 730.]
+
+=160.= B. C. 758-714. The Twenty-fourth Dynasty consisted of one king,
+Boccho´ris. He fixed the government at Sa´ïs, another city of the Delta,
+and was widely famed for the wisdom and justice of his administration.
+In the latter half of this period, Sabaco, the Ethiopian, overran the
+country and reduced the Saïte monarch to a mere vassal. Bocchoris,
+attempting to revolt, was captured and burned to death, after a reign of
+forty-four years.
+
+[Sidenote: B. C. 690-665.]
+
+=161.= Sabaco I, having subdued Egypt, established the Twenty-fifth
+Dynasty. He fought with the king of Assyria for the dominion of western
+Asia, but was defeated by Sargon in the battle of Raphia, B. C. 718.
+Assyrian influence became predominant in the Delta, while the power of
+the Ethiopian was undisturbed only in Upper Egypt. The second king of
+this family was also named Sabaco. The third and last, Tir´hakeh, was
+the greatest of the line. He maintained war successively with three
+Assyrian monarchs. The first, Sennacherib, was overthrown[17] B. C. 698.
+His son, Esarhaddon, was successful for a time in breaking Lower Egypt
+into a number of tributary provinces. Tirhakeh recovered his power and
+reunited his kingdom; but after two years’ war with Asshur-bani-pal, the
+next king of Assyria, he was obliged to abdicate in favor of his son.
+The son was expelled, and Egypt was divided for thirty years into many
+petty kingdoms, which remained subject to Assyria until the death of the
+conqueror.
+
+=162.= For the Egyptians this was merely a change of foreign rulers.
+Their patriotism had long been declining, and their native army had lost
+its fame and valor from the time when the kings of the Twenty-second
+Dynasty intrusted the national defense to foreigners. The military caste
+became degraded, and the crown even attempted to deprive the soldiers
+of their lands. Egypt had become in some degree a naval power, and a
+commercial class had arisen to rival the soldiers and farmers.
+
+=163.= About 630 B. C., the Assyrians had to concentrate their forces
+at home in resistance to the Scythians; and Psammet´ichus, one of the
+native viceroys whom they had set up in Egypt, seized the opportunity to
+throw off their yoke. The great Assyrian Empire was now falling under the
+Median and Babylonian revolt, and its power ceased to be felt in distant
+provinces. Psammetichus gained victories over his brother viceroys,
+and established the Twenty-sixth Dynasty over all Egypt. He was an
+enlightened monarch, and during his reign art and science received a new
+impulse.
+
+=164.= Having overcome the dodecarchy by means of his Greek and Tyrian
+auxiliaries, he settled these foreign troops in permanent camps, the
+latter near Memphis, the former near the Pelusiac branch of the Nile.
+His native soldiery were so incensed by being thus superseded by foreign
+mercenaries, that many deserted and took up their residence in Ethiopia.
+So many foreigners of all classes now flocked to the ports of Egypt, that
+a new caste of dragomans, or interpreters, arose. Psammetichus caused his
+own son to be instructed in Greek learning, a sure sign that the barriers
+which had hitherto separated the intellectual life of Egypt from the rest
+of the world were now broken down.
+
+=165.= Those northern barbarians who had terrified the Assyrians had now
+overrun Palestine and threatened an invasion of Egypt; but the messengers
+of Psammetichus met them at Ascalon with bribes which induced them to
+return.
+
+[Sidenote: B. C. 605.]
+
+=166.= B. C. 610-594. In the reign of Necho, son of Psammetichus, the
+navy and commerce of Egypt were greatly increased, and Africa was for the
+first time circumnavigated by an Egyptian fleet. This expedition sailed
+by way of the Red Sea. Twice the seamen landed, encamped, sowed grain,
+and waited for a harvest. Having reaped their crop, they again set sail,
+and in the third year arrived in Egypt by way of the Mediterranean. The
+foreign conquests of Necho may even be compared with those of the great
+Rameses, for he enlarged his dominions by all the country between Egypt
+and the Euphrates. But he met a stronger foe in Nebuchadnezzar, and when
+he fled from the field of Car´chemish all his Asiatic conquests fell into
+the hands of the great Babylonian.
+
+[Sidenote: B. C. 569-525.]
+
+=167.= B. C. 588-569. His grandson, Apries, the Pharaoh-hophra of
+Scripture, resumed the warlike schemes of Necho. He besieged Sidon,
+fought a naval battle with Tyre, and made an unsuccessful alliance with
+Zedekiah, king of Judah, against Nebuchadnezzar. He was deposed, and
+his successor, Ama´sis, held his crown at first as a tributary to the
+Babylonian. He afterward made himself independent; and many monuments
+throughout Egypt bear witness to his liberal encouragement of the arts,
+while his foreign policy enriched the country. He was on friendly terms
+with Greece and her colonies, and many Greek merchants settled in Egypt.
+
+=168.= Alarmed by the increasing power of Persia, he sought to strengthen
+himself by alliances with Crœsus of Lydia, and Polycrates of Samos. The
+precaution was ineffectual, but Amasis did not live to see the ruin
+of his country. Cambyses, king of Persia, was already on his march at
+the head of a great army, when Psammen´itus, son of Amasis, succeeded
+to the throne of Egypt. The new king hastened to meet the invader at
+Pelusium, but was defeated and compelled to shut himself up in Memphis,
+his capital, where the Persians now advanced to besiege him. The city
+was taken and its king made captive, after a reign of only six months.
+A little later he was put to death; and the Kingdom of Egypt, after a
+thousand years of independent existence, became a mere province of the
+Persian Empire, B. C. 525.
+
+
+RECAPITULATION.
+
+    At a very early period Egypt was highly civilized, but not
+    united, for it consisted of many independent nomes governed by
+    priests. Menes built Memphis, and founded the Empire of Upper
+    and Lower Egypt, which was ruled by twenty-six dynasties before
+    the Persian Conquest. Sesorcheres founded the Third Dynasty;
+    Sesonchosis patronized all the arts, and his son improved the
+    laws and worship. The Fourth Dynasty built many pyramids,
+    while the Second and Fifth reigned as dependents in This and
+    Elephantine. Egypt was afterward divided into five kingdoms,
+    and became subject to the Hyksos from Asia, who enslaved the
+    people, and after a time subdued the whole country, except Xois
+    in the Delta. During the early part of their invasion, the
+    Twelfth Dynasty reigned at Thebes in great power and splendor.
+
+    B. C. 1525, Amosis led a revolt which expelled the Hyksos, and
+    founded the Eighteenth Dynasty at Memphis. Several queens were
+    highly honored. The people were prosperous, but the captive
+    Hebrews were oppressed. Thothmes III built many palaces;
+    Seti re-conquered Syria; and his son, Rameses the Great,
+    gained victories in Europe, Asia, and Africa. In the reign of
+    Menephthah, the Israelites were led out of Egypt by Moses.
+    Under the Twentieth Dynasty, the art, enterprise, and power
+    of Egypt declined. The Twenty-first Dynasty was composed of
+    priests; the Twenty-second, of soldiers. The Twenty-fourth
+    was overthrown by Sabaco the Ethiopian; the Twenty-fifth,
+    which he founded, was, in turn, reduced by the Assyrians.
+    After thirty years’ subjection, Egypt was delivered and united
+    by Psammetichus, with the aid of foreign troops. Necho, his
+    son, was successful in many naval and military enterprises,
+    but was defeated at last by Nebuchadnezzar, in the battle
+    of Carchemish. Apries was deposed by the same king, and
+    Amasis came to the throne as a viceroy of Babylon. His son,
+    Psammenitus, was conquered by Cambyses, and Egypt became a
+    Persian province.
+
+
+RELIGION OF EGYPT.
+
+=169.= The religion of the ancient Egyptians was a perplexing mixture
+of grand conceptions and degrading superstitions. No other ancient
+people had so firm an assurance of immortality, or felt its motives
+so intimately affecting their daily life; yet no other carried its
+idolatries to so debasing and ridiculous an extreme. The contradiction
+is partly solved if we remember two distinctions: the first applying
+chiefly to the ancient and heathen world, between the religion of priests
+and people; the second every-where existing, even in the One True Faith,
+between theory and practice—between ideal teaching and the personal
+character of those who receive it.
+
+=170.= The sacred books of the Egyptians contained the system adopted
+by the priests. Their fundamental doctrine was that God is one,
+unrepresented, invisible. But as God acts upon the world, his various
+attributes or modes of manifestation were represented in various forms.
+As the Creator, he was Phtha; as the Revealer, he was Am´un; as the
+Benefactor and the Judge of men, he was Osiris; and so on through an
+endless list of primary, secondary, and tertiary characters, which to
+the uneducated became so many separate divinities. Some portion of his
+divine life was even supposed to reside in plants and animals, which were
+accordingly cherished and worshiped by the ignorant. For what to the wise
+were merely symbols, to the people became distinct objects of adoration;
+and the Egyptian priests, like all other heathen philosophers, disdained
+to spread abroad the light which they possessed. They despised the common
+people, whom they judged incapable of apprehending the sacred mysteries,
+and taught them only those convenient doctrines which would render them
+submissive to kingly and priestly authority.
+
+=171.= The people, then, believed in eight gods of the first order,
+twelve of the second, and seven of the third; but each of these was
+worshiped under many titles, or as connected with different places. Isis
+was, therefore, surnamed Myriônyma, or “with ten thousand names.” The sun
+and the moon were admitted to their worship; the former as representing
+the life-giving power of the deity, the latter as the regulator of time
+and the messenger of heaven. The moon was figured as the Ibis-headed
+Thoth, who corresponds to the Greek Hermes, the god of letters and
+recorder of all human actions.
+
+=172.= A principle of evil was worshiped, in very early times, under
+the name of Seth, the Satan of Egyptian mythology. He was figured on a
+monument as instructing a king in the use of a bow. Sin is elsewhere
+represented as a great serpent, the enemy of gods and men, slain by the
+spear of Horus, the child of Isis. It seems impossible to doubt that the
+Egyptians had preserved some traditions of the promises made to Eve. At
+a later period the worship of the evil principle was abolished, and the
+square-eared images of Seth were chiseled off from the monuments.
+
+=173.= The most interesting article of Egyptian mythology is the
+appearance of Osiris on earth for the benefit of mankind, under the title
+of Manifestor of Goodness and Truth; his death by the malice of the evil
+one; his burial and resurrection, and his office as judge of the dead. In
+every part of Egypt, and during all periods of its history, Osiris was
+regarded as the great arbiter of the future state.
+
+=174.= In the earliest times human sacrifices were practiced, as is
+proved by the Sacrificial Seal which was accustomed to be affixed to
+the victim, and copies of which are frequently found in the tombs. It
+represents a kneeling human figure, bound, and awaiting the descent of
+the knife which glitters in the hand of a priest. But the practice was
+abolished by Amosis (B. C. 1525-1499), who ordered an equal number of
+waxen effigies to be offered instead of the human victims.
+
+=175.= The worship of animals was the most revolting feature of Egyptian
+ceremonies. Throughout Egypt the ox, dog, cat, ibis, hawk, and the fishes
+lepidotus and oxyrrynchus were held sacred. Beside these there were
+innumerable local idolatries. Men´des worshiped the goat; Heracleop´olis,
+the ichneumon; Cynop´olis, the dog; Lycop´olis, the wolf; A´thribis,
+the shrew-mouse; Sa´ïs and Thebes, the sheep; Babylon near Memphis, the
+ape, etc. Still more honored were the bull Apis, at Memphis; the calf
+Mne´vis, at Heliopolis; and the crocodiles of Om´bos and Arsin´oë. These
+were tended in their stalls by priests, and worshiped by the people
+with profound reverence. Apis, the living symbol of Osiris, passed his
+days in an Apeum attached to the Serapeum at Memphis. When he died he
+was embalmed, and buried in so magnificent a manner that the persons in
+charge of the ceremony were often ruined by the expense. He was supposed
+to be the son of the moon, and was known by a white triangle or square on
+his black forehead, the figure of a vulture on his back, and of a beetle
+under his tongue. He was never allowed to live more than twenty-five
+years. If he seemed likely to survive this period, he was drowned in
+the sacred fountain, and another Apis was sought. The chemistry of the
+priests had already produced the required white spots in the black hair
+of some young calf, and the candidate was never sought in vain. At the
+annual rising of the Nile, a seven-days’ feast was held in honor of
+Osiris.
+
+=176.= Difference of worship sometimes led to bitter enmities between
+the several nomes. Thus, at Ombos the crocodile was worshiped, while at
+Ten´tyra it was hunted and abhorred; the ram-headed Am´un was an object
+of adoration at Thebes, and the sheep was a sacred animal, while the goat
+was killed for food; in Men´des the goat was worshiped and the sheep was
+eaten. The Lycopol´ites also ate mutton in compliment to the wolves,
+which they venerated.
+
+=177.= If we turn from the trivial rites to the moral effects of the
+Egyptian faith, we find more to respect. The rewards and punishments of
+a future life were powerful incitements to right dealing in the present.
+At death all became equal: the king or the highest pontiff equally with
+the lowest swine-herd must be acquitted by the judges before his body was
+permitted to pass the sacred lake and be buried with his fathers. Every
+nome had its sacred lake, across which all funeral processions passed on
+their way to the city of the dead. On the side nearest the abodes of the
+living, have been found the remains of multitudes who failed to pass the
+ordeal, and whose bodies were ignominiously returned to their friends, to
+be disposed of in the speediest manner.
+
+=178.= Beside the earthly tribunal of forty-two judges, who decided the
+fate of the body, it was believed that the soul must pass before the
+divine judgment-seat before it could enter the abodes of the blessed. The
+Book of the Dead—the only one yet discovered of the forty-two sacred
+books of the Egyptians—contains a description of the trial of a departed
+soul. It is represented on its long journey as occupied with prayers and
+confessions. Forty-two gods occupy the judgment-seat. Osiris presides;
+and before him are the scales, in one of which the statue of perfect
+Justice is placed; in the other, the heart of the deceased. The soul of
+the dead stands watching the balance, while Horus examines the plummet
+indicating which way the beam preponderates; and Thoth, the Justifier,
+records the sentence. If this is favorable, the soul receives a mark or
+seal, “Justified.”
+
+=179.= The temples of Egypt are the grandest architectural monuments
+in the world. That of Am´un, in a rich oasis twenty days’ journey from
+Thebes, was one of the most famous of ancient oracles. Near it, in
+a grove of palms, rose a hot spring, the Fountain of the Sun, whose
+bubbling and smoking were supposed to be tokens of the divine presence.
+The oasis was a resting-place for caravans which passed between Egypt and
+the interior regions of Nigritia or Soudan; and many rich offerings were
+placed in the temple by merchants, thankful to have so nearly escaped
+the perils of the desert, or anxious to gain the favor of Amun for their
+journey just begun.
+
+=180.= The Egyptians were divided into castes, or ranks, distinguished by
+occupations. These have been variously numbered from three to seven. The
+priests stood highest, the soldiers next; below these were husbandmen,
+who may be divided into gardeners, boatmen, artisans of various kinds,
+and shepherds, the latter including goat-herds and swine-herds, which
+last were considered lowest of all.
+
+=181.= The land, at least under the new empire, belonged exclusively to
+the king, the priests, and the soldiers. In the time when Joseph the
+Hebrew was prime minister, all other proprietors surrendered their lands
+to the crown,[18] retaining possession of them only on condition of
+paying a yearly rent of one-fifth of the produce.
+
+=182.= The king was the representative of deity, and thus the head not
+only of the government but of the religion of the state. His title, Phrah
+(Pharaoh), signifying the Sun, pronounced him the emblem of the god of
+light. It was his right and office to preside over the sacrifice and pour
+out libations to the gods.
+
+=183.= On account of his great responsibilities, the king of Egypt was
+allowed less freedom in personal habits than the meanest of his subjects.
+The sacred books contained minute regulations for his food, drink, and
+dress, and the employment of his time. No indulgence of any kind was
+permitted to be carried to excess. No slave or hireling was allowed
+to hold office about his person, lest he should imbibe ideas unworthy
+of a prince; but noblemen of the highest rank were alone privileged to
+attend him. The ritual of every morning’s worship chanted the virtues
+of former kings, and reminded him of his own duties. After death his
+body was placed in an open court, where all his subjects might come with
+accusations; and if his conduct in life was proved to have been unworthy
+his high station, he was forever excluded from the sepulcher of his
+fathers.
+
+=184.= The priestly order possessed great power in the state, and, so far
+as the sovereign was concerned, we can not deny that they used it well.
+They were remarkable for their simple and temperate habits of living.
+So careful were they that the body should “sit lightly upon the soul,”
+that they took food only of the plainest quality and limited amount,
+abstaining from many articles, such as fish, mutton, swine’s flesh,
+beans, peas, garlic, leeks, and onions, which were in use among the
+common people. They bathed twice a day and twice during the night—some
+of the more strict, in water that had been tasted by their sacred bird,
+the ibis, that they might have undoubted evidence of its cleanliness.
+By this example of abstinence, purity, and humility, as well as by
+their reputation for learning, the Egyptian priests established almost
+unlimited control over the people. Their knowledge of physical science
+enabled them, by optical illusions and other tricks, to excite the terror
+and superstitious awe of their ignorant spectators. Nor did their reputed
+power end with this life, for they could refuse to any man the passport
+to the “outer world,” which alone could secure his eternal happiness.
+
+=185.= The science of medicine was cultivated by the priests in even
+the remotest ages. The universal practice of embalming was exercised
+by physicians, and this enabled them to study the effects of various
+diseases, by examination of the body after death. Asiatic monarchs sent
+to Egypt for their physicians, and the prolific soil of the Nile Valley
+supplied drugs for all the world. To this day, the characters used by
+apothecaries to denote drams and grains are Egyptian ciphers as adopted
+by the Arabs.
+
+=186.= The soldiers, when not engaged in service either in foreign
+wars, in garrisons, or at court, were settled on their own lands. These
+were situated chiefly east of the Nile or in the Delta, since it was in
+these quarters that the country was most exposed to hostile invasions.
+Each soldier was allotted about six acres of land, free from all tax or
+tribute. From its proceeds he defrayed the expense of his own arms and
+equipment.
+
+=187.= Upon the walls of their tombs are found vivid delineations of the
+daily life of the Egyptians. Their industries, such as glass-blowing,
+linen-weaving, rope-making, etc., as well as their common recreations
+of hunting, fishing, ball-playing, wrestling, and domestic scenes, as
+in the entertainment of company, are all represented in sculpture or
+paintings upon the walls of Thebes or Beni-hassan. Dolls and other toys
+of children are found in the tombs; and it is evident that the Egyptians
+had so familiarized the idea of death as to have rid themselves of the
+gloomy and painful associations with which it is often surrounded. The
+body, after being prepared for the tomb, was returned to the house of
+its abode, where it was kept never less than thirty days, and sometimes
+even a year, feasts being given in its honor, and it being always present
+in the company of guests. From the moment when the forty-two judges
+had pronounced their favorable verdict on the border of the lake, the
+lamentations of the funeral train were changed into songs of triumph, and
+the deceased was congratulated on his admission to the glorified company
+of the friends of Osiris.
+
+
+CARTHAGE.
+
+=188.= About 850 B. C., Dido, sister of Pygmalion, king of Tyre, having
+been cruelly wronged by her brother in the murder of her husband,
+Acer´bas, resolved to escape from his dominions and establish a new
+empire. Accompanied by some Tyrian nobles who were dissatisfied with the
+rule of Pygmalion, she sailed in a fleet laden with the treasures of her
+husband, and came to anchor at length in a bay on the northern coast of
+Africa, about six miles north of the modern Tunis.
+
+=189.= The Libyan natives, who knew the value of commerce and the wealth
+of Phœnician colonies, were inclined to be friendly; but their first
+transaction with the new settlers promised advantages only to one side.
+Dido proposed to lease from them as much land as could be covered with a
+bullock’s hide. The yearly ground-rent being settled, she then ordered
+the hide to be cut into the thinnest possible strips, and thus surrounded
+a large portion of land, on which she built the fortress of Byr´sa. The
+colony prospered, however, and was strengthened by the alliance of Utica
+and other Tyrian settlements on the same coast. By similar arrangements
+with the Libyans, the queen obtained permission to build the town of
+CARTHAGE, which became the seat of a great commercial empire.
+
+=190.= As the New City[19] rose to a high degree of power and wealth,
+Hiar´bas, a neighboring king, sent to demand a marriage with Dido,
+threatening war in case of refusal. The queen seemed to consent for the
+benefit of her state; but at the end of three months’ preparation, she
+ascended a funeral pile upon which sacrifices had been offered to the
+shades of Acer´bas, and declaring to her people, that she was going to
+her husband, as they had desired, plunged a sword into her breast. Dido
+continued to be worshiped as a divinity in Carthage as long as the city
+existed.
+
+[Sidenote: B. C. 585.]
+
+=191.= So far our story is mixed with fable, though containing,
+doubtless, a large proportion of truth. What we certainly know is, that
+the latest colony of Tyre soon became the most powerful; that it grew by
+the alliance and immigration of the neighboring Libyans, as well as of
+its sister colonies; and that it gained in wealth by the destruction[20]
+of its parent city in the Babylonian wars. While the Levantine commerce
+of Tyre fell to the Greeks, that of the West was naturally inherited by
+the Carthaginians.
+
+=192.= The African tribes, to whom the colonists were at first compelled
+to pay tribute for the slight foot-hold they possessed, became at
+length totally subjugated. They cultivated their lands for the benefit
+of Carthage, and might at any time be forced to contribute half their
+movable wealth to her treasury, and all their young men to her armies.
+The Phœnician settlements gradually formed themselves into a confederacy,
+of which Carthage was the head, though she possessed no authority beyond
+the natural leadership of the most powerful. Her dominions extended
+westward to the Pillars of Hercules, and down the African coast to the
+end of the Atlas range; on the east her boundaries were fixed, after a
+long contest with the Greek city of Cyre´ne, at the bottom of the Great
+Syrtis, or gulf, which indents the northern shore.
+
+=193.= Not content with her continental domains, Carthage gained
+possession of most of the islands of the western Mediterranean. The coast
+of Sicily was already dotted with Phœnician trading stations. These came
+under the control of Carthage; and though out-rivaled in prosperity by
+the free cities of the Greeks, especially Agrigen´tum and Syr´acuse,
+the western portion of the island long remained a valuable possession.
+The Balearic Islands were occupied by Carthaginian troops. Sardinia was
+conquered by a long and severe conflict, and became a most important
+station for the trade with Western Europe. Settlements were established
+in Corsica and Spain, while, in the Atlantic, the islands of Madeira and
+the Canaries were early subdued.
+
+=194.= These conquests were made chiefly by means of foreign mercenaries
+drawn both from Europe and Africa. South and west of Carthage were the
+barbarous but usually friendly tribes of Numid´ia and Mauritania; and her
+merchants in their journeys had frequent dealings with the warlike races
+of Spain, Gaul, and northern Italy. It is said that the Carthaginians
+mingled these various nations in their armies in such a manner that
+difference of language might prevent their plotting together.
+
+=195.= The navy of Carthage was of great importance in protecting her
+commerce from the swarms of pirates which infested the Mediterranean. The
+galleys were propelled by oars in the hands of slaves, but the officers
+and sailors were usually native Carthaginians. With these land and naval
+forces, Carthage became for several centuries undisputed mistress of the
+central and western Mediterranean.
+
+[Sidenote: B. C. 509.]
+
+=196.= Toward the middle of the sixth century B. C., a great commercial
+rival appeared in the western waters. The Greeks had begun their system
+of colonization; had opened a trade with Tartes´sus, multiplied their
+settlements in Sicily and Corsica, and built Massil´ia near the mouth
+of the Rhone. Near the close of our First Period, the two powers came
+into fierce collision, and the Grecian fleet was destroyed by that of
+Carthage, aided by her Etruscan allies. At the same time Rome, which
+had grown powerful under her kings, became free by their expulsion; and
+the Carthaginians, hitherto on friendly terms with the Italians, made a
+treaty of alliance with the new Republic which was to prove their most
+unrelenting foe.
+
+=197.= The government of Carthage, under the forms of a republic,
+was really an aristocracy of wealth. The two chief officers were the
+Suffe´tes, who at first, like the Hebrew rulers from Joshua to Samuel,
+led the people in war and judged them in peace. In later times their
+office became exclusively civil, and generals were appointed for military
+command. The Suffetes were elected only from certain families, and
+probably for life.
+
+=198.= Next came the Council of several hundreds of citizens, from which
+committees of five were chosen to administer the various departments of
+state. At a later period, when the house of Mago had risen to a degree of
+military power which was thought to endanger the public safety, a Council
+of One Hundred was added to these, before which all generals returning
+from war were obliged to present themselves and render an account of
+their actions. So severe were the judgments of this tribunal, that an
+unsuccessful general often preferred suicide upon the field of battle to
+meeting their awards. With the two judges and the two high priests, this
+council constituted the Supreme Court of the Republic.
+
+=199.= The larger Council, or Senate, received foreign embassadors,
+deliberated upon all matters of state, and decided questions of war or
+peace, with a certain deference to the authority of the Suffetes. If the
+judges and the senate could not agree, appeal was made to the people.
+
+=200.= The religion of Carthage was the same as that of Tyre, with
+the addition of the worship of two or three Grecian divinities, whom
+the Carthaginians thought it necessary to appease by sacrifices after
+destroying their temples in Sicily. Every army was accompanied by a
+prophet or diviner, without whose direction nothing could be done.
+Generals frequently offered sacrifices, even during the progress of a
+battle. There was no hereditary priesthood, as in Egypt, but the priestly
+offices were filled by the highest persons in the state, sometimes even
+by the sons of the kings or judges. In every new settlement a sanctuary
+was erected, that the religion of the mother country might grow together
+with her government and commerce. Every year a fleet left Carthage,
+laden with rich offerings and bearing a solemn embassy to the shrine of
+the Tyrian Hercules. The human sacrifices and other hideous rites of
+Phœnician worship prevailed at Carthage; and though these features were
+somewhat softened by advancing civilization, we shall find traces enough,
+in future pages of her history, of that cruelty which makes so dark a
+blemish in the character of the whole race.
+
+=201.= The trade of Carthage was carried on both by land and sea.
+Her caravans crossed the Great Desert by routes still traveled, and
+exchanged the products of northern countries for those of Upper Egypt,
+Ethiopia, Fezzan, and, perhaps, the far interior regions of Nigri´tia.
+The manufactures of Carthage included fine cloths, hardware, pottery,
+and harness of leather; but beside the exchange of her own products, she
+possessed almost exclusively the carrying-trade between the nations of
+Africa and western Europe.
+
+=202.= The ships of Carthage penetrated all the then known seas; and
+though confined to coast navigation, they explored the Atlantic from
+Norway to the Cape of Good Hope. Hanno, the son of Hamil´car, conducted
+sixty ships bearing 30,000 colonists to the western shores of Africa,
+where he planted a chain of six colonies between the Straits and the
+island of Cer´ne. He then went southward with some of his ships as
+far as the River Gambia, and visited the Gold Coast, with which his
+countrymen thenceforth carried on a regular traffic. On his return he
+placed an inscription, commemorative of this voyage, on a brazen tablet
+in the temple of Kro´nos, at Carthage. Himilco, his brother, led another
+expedition the same year to the western coast of Europe, but of this the
+history is lost.
+
+=203.= These extensive voyages in the interest of trade brought the
+products of the world into the Carthaginian markets. There might be seen
+muslins from Malta; oil and wine from Italy; wax and honey from Corsica;
+iron from Elba; gold, silver, and iron from Spain; tin from Cornwall and
+the Scilly Isles; amber from the Baltic; gold, ivory, and slaves from
+Senegam´bia.
+
+=204.= While commerce was so abundant a source of wealth, agriculture
+was the favorite pursuit of nobles and people. The fertile soil of Libya
+yielded a hundred-fold to the farmer. So fond were wealthy Carthaginians
+of the healthful toils of the field, that one of their great men wrote a
+work, in twenty-eight volumes, on methods of husbandry; and this alone,
+of all the treasures of their literature, was thought by their Roman
+conquerors worthy of preservation.
+
+=205.= We have slightly anticipated the course of events, in order to
+present a connected account of the government, religion, and trade of
+Carthage. Of her wars with the Sicilian Greeks, from the disastrous
+defeat of Hamilcar at Him´era, B. C. 480, to the peace of B. C. 304, we
+have no space for the details. The final period of Carthaginian history,
+comprising the Roman wars and the destruction of the city, will be found
+in Book V.
+
+
+RECAPITULATION.
+
+    Carthage, a colony of Tyre, became sovereign of the shores
+    and islands of the western Mediterranean, a rival of Greece,
+    and an ally of Rome. Her army and navy were largely composed
+    of European and African mercenaries. Her government was
+    republican, with two judges at its head, foreign affairs being
+    transacted by a council of citizens. Religious ceremonies
+    claimed a large share of attention, both in war and peace.
+    Commerce extended by land to the interior of Africa; by sea,
+    from the Baltic to the Indian Ocean; and products of all the
+    world filled the Carthaginian markets. Agriculture was a
+    favorite employment with nobles and common people.
+
+
+QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW.
+
+Book I.—Part II.
+
+   1. What is remarkable in the early history of Egypt?        §§ 126-128.
+   2. Describe the first monarch of the united empire.                129.
+   3.          His successors in the same dynasty.                    130.
+   4. How many dynasties before the Persian Conquest?                 163.
+   5. Describe the kings of the Third Dynasty.                   131, 132.
+   6.          The Pyramid-builders.                              133-135.
+   7. What dynasties were subject to the fourth?                      136.
+   8. Describe the divisions of Egypt and their consequences.    138, 139.
+   9.          The monuments of the Twelfth Dynasty.                  140.
+  10.          The dominion and character of the Hyksos.         141, 142.
+  11.          The rise of the New Empire.                            143.
+  12.          The family of Thothmes I.                         146, 147.
+  13. Name the remaining kings of the Eighteenth Dynasty.        148, 149.
+  14. Who founded the Nineteenth Dynasty?                             150.
+  15. Describe its second and third kings.                        150-152.
+  16.          The Exodus of the Hebrews.                             154.
+  17.          Egypt under the Twentieth Dynasty.                155, 156.
+  18. What connections of Egyptian and Hebrew history under the
+        Twenty-first and Twenty-second Dynasties?                157, 158.
+  19. Who constituted the Twenty-fourth Dynasty?                      160.
+  20. Tell the history of the Twenty-fifth Dynasty.                   161.
+  21. What was the condition of Egypt after the fall of Tirhakeh?     162.
+  22. What led to the rise of the Twenty-sixth Dynasty?               163.
+  23. What was the foreign policy of Psammetichus?                    164.
+  24. What naval enterprise in the reign of Necho?                    166.
+  25. Describe the reigns of Apries and Amasis.                       167.
+  26.          The theory and practice of Egyptian religion.     169, 170.
+  27. What were the objects of worship?                     171, 172, 175.
+  28. Describe the twofold judgment of the dead.                 177, 178.
+  29. Into what ranks were Egyptians divided?                         180.
+  30. Who owned the land?                                             181.
+  31. Describe the dignities and duties of the king.             182, 183.
+  32.          The life and power of the priests.                     184.
+  33.          Their medical practice.                                185.
+  34.          The tombs, and honors paid to the dead.                187.
+  35. Give the traditional account of the founding of Carthage   188, 189.
+  36. Describe the causes of its prosperity.                          191.
+  37.          The extent of its dominion.                       192, 193.
+  38.          Its army and navy.                                194, 195.
+  39. What war and what alliance in the sixth century?                196.
+  40. Describe the government of Carthage.                        197-199.
+  41.          Its religion.                                          200.
+  42.          Its trade by land and sea.                         201-203.
+  43. What was the favorite pursuit of the Carthaginians?             204.
+
+
+
+
+BOOK II.
+
+THE PERSIAN EMPIRE FROM THE RISE OF CYRUS TO THE FALL OF DARIUS.
+
+B. C. 558-330.
+
+
+=1.= About 650 B. C., a warlike people, from the highlands east of the
+Caspian, took possession of the hilly country north of the Persian Gulf.
+They belonged, like the Medes, to the Aryan or Indo-Germanic family, and
+were distinguished by a more hardy, simple, and virtuous character, and a
+purer faith, from the luxurious inhabitants of the Babylonian plains. The
+nation, as it soon became constituted, consisted of ten tribes, of whom
+four continued nomadic, three settled to the cultivation of the soil, and
+three bore arms for the general defense. Of these the Pasar´gadæ were
+preëminent, and formed the nobility of Persia, holding all high offices
+in the army and about the court.
+
+=2.= The first king, Achæ´menes, was a Pasargadian, and from him all
+subsequent Persian kings were descended. For the first hundred years
+of its history, Persia was dependent upon the neighboring kingdom of
+Media. But a little after the middle of the sixth century before Christ,
+a revolution under Cy´rus reversed the relations of the Medo-Persian
+monarchy, and prepared the foundations of a great empire which was to
+reach beyond the Nile and the Hellespont on the west, and the Indus on
+the east.
+
+=3.= Cyrus spent many of his early years at the court of Asty´ages,
+his maternal grandfather, in the seven-walled city of Ecbat´ana.[21]
+The brave, athletic youth, accustomed to hardy sports and simple fare,
+despised the wine and dainty food, the painted faces and silken garments
+of the Median nobles. He saw that their strength was wasted by luxury,
+and that in case of a collision they would be no match for his warlike
+countrymen. At the same time, a party of the younger Medes gathered
+around Cyrus, preferring his manly virtues to the effeminate pomp and
+cruel tyranny of their king, and impatient for the time when he should be
+their ruler.
+
+[Sidenote: B. C. 558.]
+
+=4.= When all was ready, the Persian prince rallied his countrymen and
+persuaded them to become independent of the Medes. Astyages raised an
+army to quell the revolt, but when the two forces met at Pasar´gadæ, the
+greater part of the Medes went over to the Persian side. In a second
+battle Astyages was made prisoner, and the sovereignty of Media remained
+to the conqueror.
+
+[Sidenote: B. C. 546.]
+
+=5.= The reign of Cyrus was full of warlike enterprises. By the time he
+had subdued the Median cities, Crœsus,[22] king of Lydia, had become
+alarmed by his rapidly increasing power, and had stirred up Egypt,
+Babylon, and the Greeks to oppose it. He crossed the Ha´lys, and
+encountered the army of Cyrus near Sino´pe, in Cappado´cia. Neither party
+gained a victory; but Crœsus, finding his numbers inferior, drew back
+toward his capital, thinking to spend the winter in renewed preparations.
+Cyrus pursued him to the gates of Sardis, and defeated him in a decisive
+battle. The city was taken, and Crœsus owed his life to the mercy of his
+conqueror. His kingdom, which comprised all Asia Minor west of the Halys,
+was added to the Persian Empire.
+
+=6.= The monarchs of Asia had three methods of maintaining their dominion
+over the countries they had conquered: 1. A large standing army was kept
+upon the soil, at the cost of the vanquished. 2. In case of revolt,
+whole nations were sometimes transported over a distance of thousands of
+miles, usually to the islands of the Persian Gulf or the Indian Ocean,
+while their places were filled by emigrants whose loyalty was assured.
+3. A more injurious, though apparently more indulgent policy, compelled
+a warlike people to adopt luxurious and effeminate manners. Such was the
+treatment of the Lydians, by the advice of their captive king. Crœsus
+was now the trusted counselor of Cyrus. With a view to save his people
+from the miseries of transportation, he suggested that they should be
+deprived of their arms, compelled to clothe themselves in soft apparel,
+and to train their youth in habits of gaming and drinking, thus rendering
+them forever incapable of disturbing the dominion of their conquerors.
+From a brave, warlike, and industrious race, the Lydians were transformed
+into indolent pleasure-seekers, and their country remained a submissive
+province of the empire of Cyrus.
+
+=7.= CAPTURE OF BABYLON. Leaving Harpagus to complete the conquest of
+the Asiatic Greeks, Cyrus turned to the east, where he aimed at the
+greater glory of subduing Assyria. Nabonadius,[23] the Babylonian king,
+believed that the walls of his capital were proof against assault; but
+he was defeated, and the great city became the prey of the conqueror.
+The writings of Daniel, who was resident at the court of Nabonadius, and
+a witness of the overthrow of his kingdom, inform us that Dari´us the
+Median took Babylon, being about sixty-two years old. It is probable that
+Darius was another name of Astyages himself, who, being deprived of his
+own kingdom, was compensated by the government of the most magnificent
+city of the East. His arbitrary decrees concerning Daniel and his
+accusers accord well with the character of Astyages.
+
+=8.= RETURN OF THE JEWS. It will be remembered that the Jews were now
+captives in Babylonia, where they had remained seventy years, since the
+destruction of their Holy City by Nebuchadnez´zar. Cyrus, who, like
+the Hebrews, was a believer in One God, found their pure religion an
+agreeable contrast to the corrupt and degrading rites of the Babylonians.
+He may have been moved by the prophecies of Isaiah, uttered nearly two
+centuries before, and those of Jeremiah at the time of the Captivity.
+(Isaiah xliv: 28, and xlv: 1-5; Jeremiah xxv: 12, and xxviii: 11.) He
+may also have had more selfish motives for favoring the Jews, in his
+designs upon Egypt, thinking it an advantage to have a friendly people
+established in the fortresses of Judah. In any case, he fulfilled the
+prophecies by giving orders for the return of the Israelites to their own
+land, and for the rebuilding of the Temple at Jerusalem. The 5,400 golden
+and silver vessels of the House of the Lord were brought forth from the
+Babylonian treasury and delivered to the prince of Judah, who received
+the Persian title Sheshbaz´zar, corresponding to the modern Pasha´.
+Few of the original captives had survived, like Daniel, to witness the
+return; but a company of fifty thousand, men, women, and children, were
+soon collected from their settlements on the Euphrates and the Persian
+Gulf, and moving toward their own land. (Read Ezra i, and ii: 1, 64, 65,
+68-70.) On their arrival, the altar was immediately set up, the great
+festivals reëstablished, a grant of cedars from the forests of Lebanon
+obtained, and preparations made for rebuilding the Temple.
+
+=9.= Cyrus never accomplished in person his designs upon Egypt. He
+extended his conquests westward to the borders of Macedonia, and eastward
+to the Indus. Some of the conquered countries were left under the
+control of their native kings; some received Persian rulers. All were
+made tributary, but the proportion of their tribute was not fixed. The
+organization of this vast dominion was left to the successors of Cyrus.
+
+[Sidenote: B. C. 529.]
+
+=10.= His last expedition was against the Massa´getæ, a tribe which dwelt
+east of the Sea of Aral. The barbarians who roamed over these great
+northern plains had become formidable foes to the civilized empires
+of the south, but they were so thoroughly subdued by Cyrus that they
+troubled Persia no more for two hundred years. The victor, however, lost
+his life in a battle with Tom´yris, their queen, and the government and
+extension of his empire were left to the care of his son Camby´ses.
+
+=11.= In departing for his Scythian campaign, Cyrus had left his young
+cousin Dari´us in Persia, the satrapy of his father, Hystas´pes. The
+night after crossing the Arax´es, he dreamed that he saw Darius with
+wings on his shoulders, the one overshadowing Asia, and the other
+Europe. The time and the region were fruitful in dreams, and this had a
+remarkable fulfillment.
+
+=12.= REIGN OF CAMBYSES. B. C. 529-522. Without the ability of his
+father, Cambyses inherited his warlike ambition, and soon proceeded to
+execute the plans of African conquest long cherished by Cyrus. He was a
+man of violent passions, which his unlimited power left without their
+just restraint, and many of his acts are more like those of a willful and
+ignorant child than of a reasonable man.
+
+=13.= Egypt, now governed by Ama´sis, was the only part of the Babylonian
+dominion which had not yielded to Cyrus. Amasis had begun his reign as
+viceroy of Nebuchadnezzar, but during the decline of the empire he had
+become independent. Cambyses prepared for his Egyptian campaign by the
+conquest of Phœnicia and Cyprus, the two naval powers of western Asia. He
+then marched into Egypt with a great force of Persians and Greeks. Amasis
+had recently died, but his son Psammen´itus awaited the invader near the
+Pelusiac mouth of the Nile. A single battle decided the fate of Egypt.
+Psammenitus was defeated, and with his surviving followers shut himself
+up in Memphis. The siege was short, and at its termination all Egypt
+submitted to Cambyses, who assumed the full dignity of the Pharaohs as
+“Lord of the Upper and Lower Countries.” The neighboring Libyans and the
+two Greek cities, Cyre´ne and Barca, also sent in their submission and
+offered gifts.
+
+=14.= Cambyses now meditated three expeditions: one by sea against the
+great commercial empire of Carthage; one against the Ammonians of the
+desert; and a third against the long-lived Ethiopians,[24] whose country
+was reputed to be rich in gold. The first was abandoned, because the
+Phœnicians refused to serve against one of their own colonies. To the
+last-named people Cambyses sent an embassy of the Ich´thyoph´agi, who
+lived upon the borders of the Red Sea and understood their language.
+These were charged to carry presents to the Macrobian king, and assure
+him that the Persian monarch desired his friendship. The Ethiopian
+replied in plain terms: “Neither has the king of Persia sent you because
+he valued my alliance, nor do you speak the truth, for you are come
+as spies of my kingdom. Nor is he a just man; for if he were just, he
+would not desire any land but his own, nor would he reduce people to
+servitude who have done him no harm. However, give him this bow, and say
+these words to him: The king of the Ethiopians advises the king of the
+Persians, when his Persians can thus easily draw a bow of this size, then
+to make war upon the long-lived Ethiopians with a more numerous army; but
+until that time let him thank the gods, who have not inspired the sons of
+the Ethiopians with a desire of adding another land to their own.”
+
+=15.= When Cambyses heard the reply of the Ethiopian he was enraged, and
+without the usual military forethought to provide magazines of food,
+he instantly put his army in motion. Arriving at Thebes, he sent off a
+detachment of 50,000 men to destroy the temple and oracle of Amun[25]
+in the Oasis. This army was buried in the sands of the desert, without
+even beholding Ammo´nium. The main army of Cambyses was almost equally
+unfortunate. Before a fifth part of its journey was completed its
+provisions were spent. The beasts of burden were then eaten, and life was
+supported a little longer by herbs gathered from the soil. But when they
+reached the desert, both food and water failed, and the wretched men were
+reduced to eating certain of their comrades chosen by lot. By this time
+even the rage of the king was exhausted, and he consented to turn back;
+but he arrived at Memphis with a small portion of the host which had gone
+forth with him upon this ill-concerted enterprise.
+
+=16.= He found the Memphians keeping a joyous festival in honor of the
+god Apis, who had just reappeared.[26] The Persian was in ill humor
+from his recent disasters, and chose to believe that the Egyptians were
+rejoicing in his misfortunes. He ordered the new Apis to be brought into
+his presence. When the animal appeared, he drew his dagger and pierced
+it in the thigh; then, laughing loudly, exclaimed: “Ye blockheads, are
+there such gods as this, consisting of blood and flesh, and sensible of
+steel? This, truly, is a god worthy of the Egyptians!” He commanded his
+officers to scourge the priests and kill all the people who were found
+feasting. The Egyptians believed that Cambyses was instantly smitten with
+insanity as a punishment for this sacrilege. A reason may be found for
+his contemptuous treatment of Apis in that Persian hatred of idolatry
+which led him to shatter even the colossal images of the kings before
+many temples, and caused him to be regarded by ancient travelers as the
+great iconoclast of Egypt.
+
+=17.= The mad career of Cambyses was near its end. Before leaving Persia,
+he had caused the secret assassination of his younger brother, Bar´des,
+or, as the Greek historians called him, Smerdis, to whom their father had
+left the government of several provinces. He was about to leave Egypt,
+when a report arrived that Smerdis had revolted against him. The king now
+suspected that he had been betrayed by the too faithful messenger whom
+he had sent to kill his brother. The leader of the revolt, however, was
+neither of royal nor Persian blood. Goma´tes, a Magian, had been left by
+Cambyses steward of his palace at Susa. This man conspired with his order
+throughout the empire for a rising of the Medes against the Persians, and
+for the suppression of the reformed religion which the latter had brought
+in. Happening to resemble the younger son of Cyrus, he boldly announced
+to the people that Smerdis, brother of Cambyses, claimed their obedience.
+The story appeared credible, for the death of the prince had purposely
+been kept secret, so that nearly all the world, except Praxas´pes and his
+master, supposed him to be still alive.
+
+=18.= Cambyses was already in Syria when he received a herald who
+demanded the obedience of the army to Smerdis, son of Cyrus. Caught in
+his own toils, the king lamented in vain that for foolish jealousy he had
+murdered the only man who could have exposed the fraud, and who might
+have been the best support and defender of his throne. Overcome with
+grief and shame, he sprang on horseback to begin his journey to Persia,
+but in the act his sword was unsheathed and entered his side, inflicting
+a mortal wound. He lingered three weeks, during which time he showed more
+reason than in all his life before. He confessed and bewailed the murder
+of his brother, and besought the Persian nobles to conquer the deceitful
+Magus and bestow the kingdom on one more worthy. He had neither son nor
+brother to succeed him. He had reigned seven years and five months.
+
+=19.= REIGN OF THE PSEUDO-SMERDIS. B. C. 522-521. As it is the just
+punishment of liars not to be believed even when they speak the truth,
+Cambyses’ last confession was commonly supposed to be the most artful
+transaction of his life. The nobles, who had no knowledge of the death
+of Smerdis, believed that it was he indeed who was reigning at Susa,
+and that his brother had invented the story of the Magus to make his
+dethronement more certain. The pretended king lived in great seclusion,
+never quitting his palace, and permitting the various members of his
+household no intercourse with their relations. All orders were issued
+by his prime minister. He closed the Zoroastrian temples, restored the
+Magian priesthood, and ordered the discontinuance of the rebuilding
+at Jerusalem. (Read Ezra iv: 17-24.) These religious changes, such as
+no Achæmenian prince could have favored, began to awaken suspicions.
+Seven great princes of the royal race, having learned by a spy within
+the palace that the pretended monarch was only a Magian whom Cyrus had
+deprived of his ears, formed a league to dethrone him. Their bold attack
+was successful; the Magus was pursued into Media, and slain after a
+reign of eight months; and Dar´ius Hystas´pes,[27] one of the seven
+conspirators, was eventually chosen to be king.
+
+=20.= REIGN OF DARIUS I. B. C. 521-486. The first years of Darius were
+disturbed by rebellions which shook his throne to its foundation. No
+fewer than eleven satrapies were successively in revolt. The most
+important was that of Babylon, which for twenty months defied all the
+efforts of the great king to reduce it. At length Zop´yrus, son of one
+of the conspirators who had raised Darius to the throne, invented an
+ingenious though revolting scheme. He cut off his own nose and ears,
+applied the scourge to his shoulders until they were stained with blood,
+and having agreed with the king upon his further conduct, deserted to
+the Babylonians. To them he represented that the king had treated him
+with such cruel indignity that he burned for revenge. His wounds added
+plausibility to his story; he was received into the confidence of the
+rebels, and on the tenth day he was intrusted with the command of a
+sallying party which was to repulse an attack of the Persians.
+
+Darius had been advised to send to the Semi´ramis Gate a body of those
+troops whom he could best spare: a thousand of them were cut to pieces.
+In a second sortie led by Zopyrus, two thousand Persians were slain;
+in a third, four thousand. This slaughter of seven thousand of his
+countrymen removed from the minds of the Babylonians all doubt of the
+truth of Zopyrus. The keys of the city were committed to his care, and
+the preparation for his treachery was now complete. During a concerted
+assault by the Persians, he opened the gates to Darius, who proceeded to
+take signal vengeance for the long defiance of his power. The reckless
+sacrifice of human life in this transaction shows how the habit of
+unlimited power had impaired the disposition of Darius, which was
+naturally merciful.
+
+=21.= To guard against future disturbances, Darius now endeavored to give
+a more thorough and efficient organization to the great empire, which
+Cyrus and Cambyses had built up. He divided the whole territory into
+twenty satrapies, or provinces, and imposed upon each a tribute according
+to its wealth. The native kings whom Cyrus had left upon their thrones
+were all swept away, and a Persian governor, usually connected by blood
+or marriage with the great king, was placed over each province. Order
+within and safety from without were secured by standing armies of Medes
+or Persians, posted at convenient stations throughout the empire. Royal
+roads were constructed and a system of couriers arranged, by which the
+court received constant and swift intelligence of all that occurred in
+the provinces.
+
+=22.= To prevent revolt, an elaborate system of checks was instituted,
+which left the satrap little power of independent action. In this earlier
+and stronger period of the consolidated empire, the satrap exercised
+only the civil government, the military being wielded by generals and
+commandants of garrisons, while, in Persia at least, the judicial
+power resided in judges appointed directly by the king. Beside these
+constitutional checks upon the satrap, there were in every province the
+“king’s eyes” and the “king’s ears,” in the persons of royal secretaries
+attached to his court, whose duty it was to communicate secretly and
+constantly with the sovereign, and to keep him informed of every
+occurrence within their respective districts.
+
+The slightest suspicion of revolt communicated to the king by these
+spies, was sufficient to bring an order for the death of the satrap.
+This order was addressed to his guards, who instantly executed it by
+hewing him down with their sabers. Each province, moreover, was liable
+every moment to a sudden visit from the king or his commissioner, who
+examined the satrap’s accounts, heard the grievances of his subjects, and
+either deprived an unjust ruler of his place, or noted a wise, upright,
+and beneficent one for promotion to greater honor. The satrap, on a
+smaller scale, affected the same magnificence of living as the great
+king himself. Each had his “paradises,” or pleasure-gardens, attached to
+numerous palaces. The satrap of Babylon had a daily revenue of nearly
+two bushels of coined silver; his stables contained nearly seventeen
+thousand steeds, and the income from four towns barely sufficed for the
+maintenance of his dogs.
+
+=23.= The court of Susa surpassed all this display of wealth as much
+as the sun surpasses the planets. Fifteen thousand persons fed daily
+at the king’s tables. The royal journeys were of necessity confined to
+the wealthier portion of the empire, for in the poorer provinces such
+a visitation would have produced a famine. The king seldom appeared in
+public, and the approach to his presence was guarded by long lines of
+officers, each of whom had his appointed station, from the ministers of
+highest rank who stood in the audience-chamber, to the humblest attendant
+who waited at the gate.
+
+=24.= The royal retinue included a numerous army, divided according to
+its nationalities into corps of 10,000 each. Of these the most celebrated
+were the Persian “Immortals,” so called because their number was always
+exactly maintained. If an “Immortal” died, a well-trained member of a
+reserve-corps was ready to take his place. They were chosen from all the
+nation for their strength, stature, and fine personal appearance. Their
+armor was resplendent with silver and gold, and on the march or in battle
+they were always near the person of the king. The royal secretaries, or
+scribes, formed another important part of the retinue of the court. They
+wrote down every word that fell from the monarch’s lips, especially his
+commands, which, once uttered, could never be recalled. (Esther viii: 8;
+Daniel vi: 8, 12, 15.)
+
+[Illustration: FIGURE OF A GOOD ANGEL—PERHAPS SRAOSHA.]
+
+
+RECAPITULATION.
+
+    Persia, having been for a century subject to the Medes,
+    became independent under Cyrus, who also conquered Lydia and
+    Babylonia, liberated the Jews, and founded a great empire
+    reaching from Macedonia to India. He died in war with the
+    Scythians, and the African expedition was left to Cambyses,
+    his son. This king conquered Egypt, but his attempts against
+    Ethiopia and the temple of Amun resulted only in disaster. His
+    contempt for Egyptian idolatry was, according to the priests,
+    punished with madness. A revolt in the name of Smerdis, whom
+    he had murdered, placed a Magian upon the throne, and effected
+    a reaction against the Persian reformation. The Magian was
+    dethroned by Darius Hystaspes, who became the great organizer
+    of the empire of Cyrus. Twenty satrapies took the place of the
+    conquered kingdoms. A system of royal roads, couriers, and
+    spies kept the whole dominion within the reach and beneath the
+    eye of the king, who was surrounded by a multitude of officials
+    and protected by a numerous army, the Persian Immortals having
+    precedence in rank.
+
+
+PERSIAN RELIGION.
+
+=25.= The Persians held the reformed religion taught by Zo´roas´ter, a
+great law-giver and prophet, who appeared in the Medo-Bactrian kingdom
+long before[28] the birth of Cyrus. In every part of the East, the
+belief in One God, and the pure and simple worship which the human
+family had learned in its original home, had become overlaid by false
+mythologies and superstitious rites. The teachings of Zoroaster divided
+the Aryan family into its two Asiatic branches, which have ever since
+remained distinct. The Hindus retained their sensuous Nature-worship,
+of which In´dra (storm and thunder), Mith´ra (sunlight), Va´yu (wind),
+Agni (fire), Arama´ti (earth), and Soma (the intoxicating principle in
+liquids), were the chief objects. Zoroaster was led, either by reason or
+divine revelation, to a purer faith. He taught the supremacy of a Living
+Creator, a person, and not merely a power, whom he called Ahu´rô-Mazdâo,
+or Or´mazd. The name has been differently rendered, the Divine
+Much-Giving, the Creator of Life, or the Living Creator of All. Ormazd
+was believed to bestow not merely earthly good, but the most precious
+spiritual gifts—truth, devotion, the “good mind,” and everlasting joy.
+
+=26.= It has been seen that Cyrus regarded the God of the Hebrews as
+the object of his own worship (Ezra i: 1-4); and the Jewish prophets
+recognize the same identity in their description of Cyrus (Isaiah xlv:
+1-5). Both nations had a profound hatred of idolatry. No image of any
+kind was seen in the Persian temples. Both believed in the ministration
+of angels. The throne of Ormazd was surrounded by six princes of light,
+and beneath them were innumerable hosts of warriors and messengers, who
+passed to and fro defending the right and exterminating wrong. Chief of
+these was Serosh, or Srao´sha, “the serene, the strong,” general-in-chief
+of the armies of Ormazd. He never slept, but continually guarded the
+earth with his drawn sword, especially after sunset, when demons had
+greatest power. At their death, he conducted the souls of the just to the
+presence of Ormazd, assisting them to pass the narrow bridge, from which
+the wicked fell into the abyss below.
+
+=27.= A later development of the doctrines of Zoroaster was that dualism
+which divided the universe into a Kingdom of Light and a Kingdom of
+Darkness. The latter was ruled by Ahriman´, the source of all impurity
+and pain, assisted by his seven superior _devas_, or princes of evil;
+and the whole world was a battle-ground between the two armies of
+spirits, good and bad. If Ormazd created a paradise, Ahriman sent into
+it a venomous serpent. All poisonous plants, reptiles, and insects, all
+sickness, poverty, plague, war, famine, and earthquakes, all unbelief,
+witchcraft, and deadly sins were the work of Ahriman; and the world,
+which should have been “very good,” was thus made the scene of suffering.
+Every object, living or inanimate, belonged to one or the other kingdom;
+and it was the duty of the servant of Ormazd to foster every thing holy
+and destroy every thing evil and impure. Agriculture was especially
+favored by Zoroaster, as promoting beautiful and healthful growths, and
+conquering blight, mildew, famine, and all destructive influences. It was
+the firm belief of all devout Zoroastrians that the Kingdom of Darkness
+would at length be overthrown, and the Kingdom of Light fill the universe.
+
+=28.= RELIGION OF THE MEDES. The Magianism of the Medes, at the time
+of their conquest by Cyrus, was a third form of Aryan belief, modified
+by contact with the barbarous Scythians. It was a peculiar form of
+Nature-worship, of which the four physical elements (so regarded), fire,
+air, earth, and water, were the objects. Fire, as the most energetic,
+was the chief. This system was wholly dependent on priest-craft; the
+Magi, or priestly caste, one of the seven Median tribes, were alone
+permitted to offer prayers and sacrifices. The Zoroastrians abhorred this
+doctrine as the work of devas, to supplant the pure principles which
+the race had received, in the beginning, from Ormazd himself. Darius
+in his inscriptions describes the usurpation of Goma´tes the Magian as
+the period when “the lie” prevailed. During the Magophonia, or yearly
+festival, which celebrated the suppression of this revolt, no Magian
+dared stir abroad for fear of death.
+
+But with increased power and luxury came a change in the national
+religion. The showy ceremonies of Magianism were better suited to the
+pomp of an Eastern court than the simple and spiritual worship of the
+Zoroastrians. A reconciliation was probably begun in the reign of Darius,
+and completed in that of Artaxerx´es Longim´anus. The Magians accepted
+the essential doctrines of Zoroaster, and were permitted, in turn, to
+introduce a part of their own symbolism and priestly rites into the
+national worship. They kept the sacred fire in the temples, fed it with
+costly woods, and never suffered it to be blown with human breath. At
+the rising of the sun they chanted sacred hymns to the Lord and Giver of
+Light. One of them waked the king each morning with the words, “Rise,
+sire, and think upon the duties which Ormazd has commanded you to
+perform.” The whole religious ceremonial of the court was committed to
+their care. They alone possessed the sacred liturgies by which Ormazd
+was to be addressed; and it was believed that through them God revealed
+his will, either in the interpretation of dreams or by the motion of the
+stars.
+
+=29.= Except that of the Hebrews, the Persian faith was the purest
+monotheism of the East. But its benefits were chiefly confined to the
+princely and noble caste, while with them its influence was neutralized
+in a great measure by the corruptions of the court. Polygamy was the
+fatal weakness of the Persian as of all other Eastern monarchies. The
+furious enmities of rival princesses filled the palace with discord, and
+often stained it with the darkest crimes. The hardy Persian mountaineers
+who had won the victories of Cyrus, whose simple but noble education
+taught them only “to ride the horse, to draw the bow, and to speak the
+truth,” adopted the slavish manners of the races they had conquered,
+learned to dissemble and prostrate themselves before the face of a
+mortal, and became the splendid but often useless ornaments of an
+extravagant court.
+
+=30.= INDIAN CONQUESTS. The first great expedition of Darius was against
+the Punjab´, or Five Rivers of Western India. The imperial revenues were
+increased one-third by the acquisition of this rich gold-tract, and a
+lucrative commerce now sprang up between the banks of the Indus and the
+shores of the Persian Gulf.
+
+=31.= SCYTHIAN CAMPAIGN. The next enterprise of Darius was against
+the Scythians of Central Europe, between the Don and the Danube. His
+design was to avenge the Scythian devastations of Media and Upper Asia a
+century before, and to terrify the barbarians into future good behavior
+by a display of his power; perhaps also to open a way into Greece by
+the conquest of the Thracian tribes. The whole army and navy of the
+empire, consisting of not less than 700,000 land soldiers and 600 ships,
+assembled at the Thracian Bosphorus, which they crossed by a bridge of
+boats constructed by Ionian engineers. The naval force was furnished
+wholly by the Greeks of the Ægean.
+
+=32.= Sending his fleet through the Euxine Sea into the Danube, with
+orders to make a bridge of boats two days’ journey from its mouth, Darius
+marched through Thrace, receiving or compelling the submission of its
+tribes, and adding their young men to his army. Arriving at the Danube,
+he crossed the bridge and gave orders to the Greeks to remain and guard
+it sixty days; if in that time he did not return, they might conclude
+that he had gone to Media by another route. The details of the great
+king’s operations north of the Danube are unknown to history. There were
+no great cities to take; the wandering Scythians destroyed their scanty
+harvests, stopped their wells, removed their families northward to places
+of security, and drew the invader after them into the depths of their
+forests or uninhabited deserts.
+
+Unable to bring his enemy to battle, and seeing his army reduced to great
+distress for want of food and water, Darius was compelled to retreat
+by the way he had come. The sixty days were more than elapsed when a
+Scythian force, which had been watching his movements, hastened to the
+Danube by a shorter route, urging the Ionians, who were still on guard,
+to destroy the bridge and leave Darius to perish, like Cyrus, in the
+northern deserts. The Greeks of Asia might thus have gained their freedom
+without a blow; but the tyrants who commanded the fleet had interests
+of their own quite separate from those of their people. Histiæ´us of
+Mile´tus urged upon his fellow-despots that their power must fall with
+that of Darius, being sustained by him against the popular will. His
+arguments prevailed, and the great king, arriving in the darkness of
+midnight, closely pursued by the Scythians, was able to repass the river
+in safety.
+
+=33.= Histiæus was rewarded by a grant of land on the river Stry´mon,
+including the town of Myrci´nus, for the site of a colony. With its
+fertile soil, ample forests, convenience for commerce, and neighboring
+mines of gold and silver, this new domain immediately attracted settlers
+and became an important maritime station. Its rapid growth, indeed,
+excited the fears of Darius, lest its owner might become too powerful for
+a vassal, and interpose a barrier between himself and the Greeks. He sent
+for Histiæus, whom he treated with every mark of respect, and pretending
+that he could not do without his valuable counsels, kept him constantly
+within reach at the court of Susa. Histiæus, resolved to break his golden
+chains at any cost, sent a singular epistle to his cousin, Aristag´oras,
+whom he had left as his lieutenant at Miletus, commanding him to stir up
+a revolt among the Asiatic Greeks.
+
+=34.= The Ionian cities, extending ninety miles along the coast in an
+almost unbroken line of magnificent quays, warehouses, and dwellings,
+were so important to the empire, on account of the fleets which they
+could furnish, that they had been left in greater freedom than any other
+conquered territory. Instead of satraps, they were governed by their own
+magistrates—either a single tyrant in each city or a council of nobles,
+called an oligarchy—but always in the Persian interest. The European
+Greeks were stirred by a desire to liberate their brethren in Asia,
+and this afforded a constant pretext for a Persian war. The forces of
+Athens and Ere´tria were now added to those of Aristagoras, who had,
+moreover, strengthened his cause by abdicating his tyranny, and aiding
+the other cities to assume the same free and popular government which he
+established at Miletus. The tyrants were every-where expelled, and the
+people sprang to arms.
+
+From Eph´esus the united forces marched up the valley of the Cay´ster,
+and swiftly crossing the mountains, took Sardis by surprise. The city
+was easily captured, but Ar´tapher´nes, the satrap, retired with a
+strong garrison to the castle, which, from its inaccessible rock, defied
+assault. A spark falling on the light reeds which formed the roofs of
+Sardis set fire to the town, and the invaders were compelled to retire.
+They were pursued and defeated with great loss by Artaphernes, in the
+battle of Ephesus. The Athenians now withdrew, but the war went on with
+undiminished spirit. The inhabitants of Cyprus, the Carians and Caunians
+of the south-western corner of the peninsula made common cause with the
+Ionian, Æo´lian, and Hellespontine Greeks; Byzantium was taken, and the
+whole coast from the Thracian Bosphorus to the Gulf of Issus was for
+the moment free from Persian dominion. The brave Carians, though twice
+defeated with great loss, were victorious in a third battle, where a
+son-in-law of Darius was slain. But the power of the great king was at
+length triumphant. The fleet of the Ionians was defeated near Miletus,
+and the vengeance of the Persians was concentrated on this devoted city,
+the leader of the rebellion. After a long blockade, it was taken by storm
+in the sixth year of the revolt.
+
+=35.= The honor of the great king was now engaged to the punishment
+of those European Greeks who had intermeddled between himself and his
+subjects. It was the first time that the Athenians had come to the notice
+of Darius. He inquired who and what sort of men they were, and being
+told, he seized his bow and shot an arrow into the air, crying aloud, “O
+Supreme God, grant that I may avenge myself on the Athenians!” From that
+time a servant was instructed to say to him three times every day as he
+sat at table, “Sire, remember the Athenians!”
+
+=36.= In the spring of 492 B. C., a great force was intrusted for this
+purpose to Mardo´nius, son-in-law of Darius. Its immediate design failed,
+for the fleet was shattered at Mount Athos, and the army nearly destroyed
+by the Brygians, a Thracian tribe. Thasos, however, was captured, and
+Macedonia was subjected to Persia.
+
+=37.= B. C. 490. A second great expedition, two years later, was
+conducted by Datis, accompanied by Artaphernes, son of the former satrap
+of that name, and nephew of the king. Having passed the sea, they fell
+first upon Eretria, which was taken by treachery, its temples burnt, and
+its inhabitants bound in chains for transportation to Asia. The first
+decisive trial of strength between Persia and the western Greeks took
+place at Mar´athon, in Attica. The Persians numbered 100,000 men, the
+Greeks but little more than 10,000. The Medo-Persian troops had hitherto
+been considered invincible; but that magnificent soldiery was now, to a
+certain extent, replaced by unwilling conscripts from conquered tribes,
+who marched, dug, or fought under the lash of overseers. Miltiades, who,
+as prince of the Chersonesus, had served in the Persian armies, well
+knew this element of weakness, and it was with just confidence in the
+superiority of his free Athenians that he gave orders for the battle.
+
+=38.= In the center, where the native Persians fought, they gained
+the advantage, and pursued the Athenians up one or two of the valleys
+which surround the base of Mount Kotro´ni; but, at the same time, both
+the right and left of the Asiatics were defeated by the Greeks, who,
+instead of pursuing, united their forces on the field to the relief of
+their center, and thus gained a complete victory. The Persians fled
+to their ships, now fiercely followed by the Greeks, and a still more
+furious contest ensued at the water’s edge. The Athenians sought to fire
+the fleet, but seven galleys only were destroyed; the rest, with the
+shattered remains of the army, made good their escape.
+
+=39.= The Persian commander did not lose his spirit in defeat. Encouraged
+by a preconcerted signal of the partisans of Hip´pias, he sailed
+immediately around Attica, hoping to surprise Athens in the absence of
+its defenders. But Miltiades, too, had seen the glittering shield raised
+upon a mountain-top, and guessed its meaning. Leaving Aristi´des with one
+tribe to guard the spoils of the battle-field, he led his army by a rapid
+night-march across the country to Athens. When Datis, the next morning,
+having doubled the point of Su´nium, sailed up the Athenian harbor, he
+saw upon the heights above the city the same victorious troops from whom
+his men had fled the evening before. He made no attempt to land, but
+sailed away with his Eretrian prisoners to the coasts of Asia.
+
+[Illustration: Silver Daric of Darius I, enlarged one-half.]
+
+=40.= Rather angered than dismayed by these failures, Darius prepared
+to lead in person a still greater expedition against the Greeks. But
+a revolt in Egypt first diverted his attention, and his death, in the
+following year, gave the free states of Europe time to complete their
+preparations for defense. B. C. 486.
+
+=41.= Many works and trophies of Darius remain in various parts of his
+empire. He was the first king who coined money in Persia. The golden and
+silver _darics_ circulated not only throughout the empire but in Greece.
+The most interesting memorials are the two records in his own words of
+the events of his reign, engraven upon his tomb at Nakshi-rus´tam, and
+upon the great rock-tablet of Behistûn´. The latter is of the greater
+length; it consists of five columns, each containing from sixteen to
+nineteen paragraphs, written in three languages, Persian, Babylonian, and
+Scythic, or Tartar. These trilingual inscriptions, embracing the three
+great families of human speech, Aryan, Semitic, and Turanian, almost
+justify the claim made by Darius to universal empire.
+
+    NOTE.—A specimen of the style of the great king may be of
+    interest to the scholar. It should be stated that the Behistûn
+    cliff forms part of the Zagros mountain range between Babylon
+    and Ecbatana. This great natural table of stone, which seems to
+    have been expressly fitted for enduring records, is 1,700 feet
+    in perpendicular height, and bears four sets of sculptures, one
+    of which is ascribed to Semiramis. The inscription of Darius
+    is most important. It has been deciphered within a few years,
+    with wonderful learning, industry, and patience, by Col. Sir
+    Henry Rawlinson, of the British army. For many years after its
+    existence was known, it was considered inaccessible, as it
+    was 300 feet from the foot of the perpendicular wall, and it
+    was necessary for the explorer to be drawn up with ropes by a
+    windlass placed at the summit. Even when a copy was thus made,
+    with great risk and inconvenience, the work was only begun, for
+    the arrow-headed (cuneiform) characters in which the Persian
+    language was written were as yet but partly understood. These
+    difficulties have now been surmounted, and the common student
+    can read the words of “Darius the King.” The whole inscription,
+    in Persian and English, may be found in Rawlinson’s Herodotus,
+    Vol. II, Appendix. A few of the shorter paragraphs are here
+    subjoined:
+
+    I. 8. “Says Darius the King: Within these countries the man who
+    was good, him have I right well cherished. Whoever was evil,
+    him have I utterly rooted out. By the grace of Ormazd, these
+    are the countries by which my laws have been observed.”…
+
+    I. 11. “Says Darius the King: Afterward there was a man, a
+    Magian, named Gomates.… He thus lied to the state: ‘I am
+    Bardes, the son of Cyrus, the brother of Cambyses.’ Then the
+    whole state became rebellious.… He seized the empire. Afterward
+    Cambyses, unable to endure, died.”
+
+    I. 13. “Says Darius the King: There was not a man, neither
+    Persian nor Median, nor any one of our family, who would
+    dispossess that Gomates the Magian of the crown. The state
+    feared him exceedingly. He slew many people who had known the
+    old Bardes; for that reason he slew them, ‘lest they should
+    recognize me that I am not Bardes, the son of Cyrus.’ No one
+    dared say any thing concerning Gomates the Magian until I
+    arrived. Then I prayed to Ormazd; Ormazd brought help to me.
+    On the 10th day of the month Bagayadish, then it was, with
+    the help of my faithful men, that I slew that Gomates the
+    Magian and those who were his chief followers. The fort named
+    Sictachotes, in the district of Media called Nisæa, there I
+    slew him. I dispossessed him of the empire; I became king.
+    Ormazd granted me the scepter.”
+
+    I. 14. “Says Darius the King: The empire which had been taken
+    away from our family, that I recovered. I established it in
+    its place. As it was before, so I made it. The temples which
+    Gomates the Magian had destroyed I rebuilt. The sacred offices
+    of the state, both the religious chants and the worship, I
+    restored to the people, which Gomates the Magian had deprived
+    them of.… By the grace of Ormazd I did this.”
+
+
+RECAPITULATION.
+
+    Persian monotheism differed essentially from the Nature-worship
+    of the Hindus and the element-worship of the Medes; but under
+    Darius and his successors the Magi gained exclusive control of
+    religious rites, and luxury destroyed the manly virtues of the
+    people. Darius conquered western India, and invaded European
+    Scythia, but without result. His detention of Histiæus led to
+    a six years’ revolt of all the Greeks of Asia Minor, aided by
+    the Athenians and Eretrians. He failed in his first retaliatory
+    enterprise against the European Greeks; and, in the second, the
+    great decisive battle of Marathon ended in the overthrow of the
+    Persians. The death of Darius postponed the Grecian wars.
+
+
+REIGN OF XERXES I.
+
+[Sidenote: B. C. 486-465.]
+
+=42.= Xer´xes, the Ahasue´rus of the Book of Esther, succeeded to his
+father’s dominions, instead of Artabaza´nes, his elder brother, who had
+been born before Darius’s accession to the throne. His first care was the
+crushing of the Egyptian revolt. This was accomplished in the second year
+of his reign; a severer servitude was imposed, and his brother Achæ´menes
+remained as his viceroy in the Valley of the Nile. The Babylonians
+attempted an insurrection, but dearly paid for their rashness with all
+the treasure of their temples.
+
+=43.= In the third year of his reign,[29] the king convened his satraps
+and generals, “the nobles and princes of the provinces,” at Susa, to
+deliberate concerning the invasion of Greece. In their presence he
+detailed the motives of ambition and revenge which urged him against a
+people which had dared to defy his power, and declared his intention
+to march through Europe, from one end to the other, and make of all
+its lands one country. He believed that, the Greeks once conquered, no
+people in the world could stand against him, and thus the sun would no
+longer shine upon any land beyond his own. He concluded by commanding
+each general to make ready his forces, assuring them that he who appeared
+upon the appointed day with the most effective troop should receive the
+rewards most precious to every Persian.
+
+=44.= During four years all Asia, from the docks of Sidon and Tyre to the
+banks of the Indus, rang with notes of preparation. All races and tribes
+of the vast empire sent men and material. The maritime nations furnished
+the largest fleet which the Mediterranean had yet seen. The Phœnicians
+and Egyptians were charged with the construction of a double bridge of
+boats over the Hellespont, from Aby´dus, on the Asiatic, to a point
+between Sestus and Mad´ytus, on the European side of the strait. After
+this work was completed, a violent storm broke it to pieces and threw the
+shattered fragments upon the shore. The king, unused to being thwarted
+in any of his designs, caused the engineers to be beheaded, the sea
+scourged, and a pair of fetters, as a hint of the required submission,
+thrown into the offending waters. A new bridge, or, rather, pair of
+bridges, was now formed with still greater care. Two lines of ships,
+anchored at stem and stern, were united each by six great cables, which
+reached from shore to shore. They supported a platform of wood, which was
+covered with earth and protected by a balustrade.
+
+=45.= Another body of men, working under the lash of Persian overseers,
+were employed three years in cutting a canal from the Strymonic to the
+Singitic Bay, to sever Mount Athos from the mainland, and thus enable
+the fleet to avoid the strong and shifting currents and high seas which
+prevailed around the peninsula. Immense stores of provisions, collected
+from all parts of the empire, were deposited at suitable intervals along
+the line of march.
+
+=46.= The rendezvous of the troops was at Crital´la, in Cappadocia,
+whence they were moved forward to Sardis. In the autumn of 481 B. C.,
+Xerxes arrived at the latter capital, and early in the following spring
+set his vast army in motion toward the Hellespont. Near the person of the
+king were the ten thousand Immortals, whose entire armor glittered with
+gold. He was preceded by the Chariot of the Sun, in which no mortal dared
+seat himself, drawn by eight snow-white horses.
+
+=47.= At Abydus the king surveyed, from his throne of white marble
+elevated upon a hill, the countless multitudes which thronged the plain,
+and the myriads of sails that studded the Hellespont. The momentary pride
+that swelled his breast, with the consciousness that he was supreme lord
+of all that host, gave way to a more worthy emotion as he reflected that
+the whole life of those myriads upon earth was almost as transitory
+as their passage of the bridge, which lay before him, connecting the
+known with the unknown continent. Early the next morning perfumes were
+burnt and myrtle boughs strewn upon the bridges, while the army awaited
+in silence the rising of the sun. When it appeared, Xerxes, with head
+uncovered—excelling, not only in rank, but in strength, stature, and
+beauty, all his host—poured a libation into the sea, praying, meanwhile,
+with his face toward the rising orb, that no disaster might befall his
+arms until he had penetrated to the uttermost boundaries of Europe.
+Haying prayed, he cast the golden cup and a Persian cimeter into the sea,
+and gave a signal for the army to march.
+
+=48.= So numerous was the host that, marching day and night without
+intermission, and goaded by the whip, it occupied seven days in crossing
+the straits by the two bridges. On the Thracian plain of Doris´cus,
+near the sea, the army was drawn up for a final review. The land force
+consisted of forty-six nations. According to Herodotus, who gathered his
+information by most careful inquiry of persons who were present, the foot
+soldiers numbered 1,700,000; the war-chariots and camels, 20,000; the
+horse, 80,000. The fleet consisted of 1,207 triremes, and 3,000 smaller
+vessels, carrying in all 517,610 men. Beside this actual fighting force,
+we must suppose an equal number of slaves, attendants, and the crews
+of provision ships, making a total of more than five millions of human
+beings.
+
+=49.= Several rivers were dried in giving drink to this multitude, while
+their food, even the scanty allowance of Asiatic slaves, amounted to
+662,000 bushels of flour each day; but the excellent commissariat of
+Xerxes, which had been organizing for seven years, was not at fault. On
+the march from Doriscus toward Greece, the king, still within his own
+empire, received further accessions from Thracian, Macedonian, and other
+European tribes, so that his fighting force at Thermop´ylæ amounted to
+2,640,000 men. Various cities along the route had been commanded to
+furnish each one meal for the army; and although they had spent years in
+preparation, some were ruined by the expense.[30]
+
+=50.= Meanwhile the Greeks had not been idle. The ten years since the
+battle of Marathon had been employed in active drilling of forces, by
+sea and land. Each state furnished its quota; and though but a handful
+compared with the myriads of invaders, they had the strength, derived
+from patriotism and high discipline, to oppose the mere material mass and
+weight of the Persian host. It was mind against matter.
+
+[Sidenote: B. C. 480.]
+
+=51.= Abandoning the defense of Thessaly, which was open by too many
+avenues to the Persians, the little army of Leon´idas, king of Sparta,
+had made a resolute stand at Thermopylæ, a narrow pass between Mount
+Œta and the sea. The whole force amounted to only 6,000 men, of whom
+but 300 were Spartans. Xerxes waited several days upon the Trachinian
+plain, expecting that this little band would melt away from mere terror
+at the sight of his vast numbers. At length he sent the Median cavalry
+to force a passage. They were repulsed with loss. The Immortals made the
+same attempt with no better success. At this point, Ephial´tes, a Malian,
+offered for a large reward to show the invaders a mountain-path by which
+they could reach the rear of the Spartan camp. The Phocian guards of
+this path were overpowered. Leonidas learned that he was betrayed, and
+declaring that he and his Spartans must remain at their post, dismissed
+all the rest of his army except the Thespians and Thebans. Then, before
+the body of Persians who were crossing the mountain, under lead of the
+traitor, could attack him from behind, he threw himself upon the enemy in
+front, resolving to exact as dear a vengeance as possible. Many of the
+Persian host fell beneath the Spartan swords, many were trodden to death
+by their own multitudes, and many were forced into the sea. Leonidas soon
+fell, and the contest for his body inspired his men with new fury. Having
+recovered it, they placed their backs against a wall of stone and fought
+until every man was slain.
+
+=52.= During the same days several battles were fought at sea between
+the Greek and Persian fleets. No decisive advantage was gained by either
+side, but the result was most disheartening to the Persians, who had been
+most confident of success. The elements, too, had neither been scourged
+nor scolded into good behavior; a terrible hurricane raged three days and
+nights upon the coast of Thessaly, tearing the ships from their moorings
+and dashing them against the cliffs. At least four hundred ships of war
+were thus destroyed, beside a countless number of transports with their
+stores and treasures. Another squadron of two hundred vessels, which had
+been sent around Eubœa to cut off the retreat of the Greeks, perished, in
+a sudden tempest, upon the rocks. The Grecian commanders were unable to
+profit by these advantages, for the defeat at Thermopylæ compelled them
+to withdraw from Artemis´ium to provide for the safety of Attica and the
+Peloponnesus.
+
+=53.= By the death of the Spartan three hundred, the gates of Greece were
+thrown open, and the hosts of Asia poured through, wasting the country
+with fire and sword. At Pano´peus a detachment was sent to plunder the
+temple of Apollo at Delphi, while Xerxes led his main army through
+Bœo´tia. On the march he received the submission of all the people
+except the Platæans and Thespians, who, rather than yield to an invader,
+abandoned their cities to be burnt. Before his arrival at Athens, the
+chief object of his revenge, the king heard of the total defeat of his
+Delphian expedition. According to Greek tradition, no mortal hand turned
+back the invaders, but Apollo himself hurled down great rocks and crags
+upon their heads, in the dark ravines of Parnassus, and thus defended his
+sanctuary.
+
+[Sidenote: B. C. 480.]
+
+=54.= Athens was a deserted city. All the fighting men were with the
+fleet, while women, children, and infirm persons had been removed
+to Salamis, Ægi´na, or Trœze´ne. The conqueror stormed the citadel,
+plundered and burnt the temples, and sent word to Susa that Athens had
+shared the fate of Sardis.
+
+=55.= Xerxes now resolved upon a decisive naval battle in the Saronic
+Gulf. The Grecian fleet had assembled off Salamis, to the number of 378
+vessels, while the Persians numbered 1,200. A throne was erected on the
+mainland, upon the slope of Mount Ægaleos, from which the great king
+beheld the struggle which was to end his dreams of conquest. The Persian
+fleet occupied the channel between Salamis and the coast of Attica. Their
+vast numbers, crowded into so narrow a space, were a fatal disadvantage
+to themselves, for they could only come near the Greeks by small
+detachments; while the latter, more accustomed to those waters, drove
+their brazen-pointed prows into the sides of the Persians, advancing and
+retiring with wonderful dexterity and surety of aim. Feeling the eye of
+their king upon them, the Persians fought with desperate bravery. The
+battle lasted all day; when night fell, Xerxes saw his forces scattered
+or destroyed, and instead of renewing the battle, resolved to seek his
+own safety in retreat.
+
+=56.= Mardonius engaged to complete the conquest of Greece with 300,000
+men. The fleet was ordered to the Hellespont, and the king with the
+remainder of his forces set out for home. His magazines had been
+exhausted, and during this forced retreat many died of hunger. Forty-five
+days after his departure from Attica he arrived at the Hellespont, and
+finding his second bridge of boats destroyed, returned to Asia by ship.
+He entered Sardis at the end of the year 480, humbled and depressed, only
+eight months from the time when he left it full of vain hopes of subduing
+the western world.
+
+=57.= The operations of Mardonius will be more fully detailed in the
+History of Greece;[31] a mere outline is here presented. Wintering in
+Thessaly, he sought by magnificent promises to detach the Athenians from
+the Greek interests. Diplomacy failing, his army was at once poured
+into Attica, filling Athens, whose inhabitants had taken refuge again
+at Salamis. He destroyed the beautiful city by fire, completing the
+destruction which Xerxes had begun. Then finding that the Greeks were
+concentrating their forces at the Isthmus, he retired into Bœotia, where,
+in September, 479, the great battle of Platæ´a was fought. Mardonius was
+slain and his forces routed with terrible carnage. The last remnant of
+the Persian fleet was similarly routed at Myc´ale, on the opposite side
+of the Ægean, and the deliverance of Europe was complete. No Persian army
+henceforth trod the soil of European Greece, and for twelve years no
+Persian sail appeared in the Ægean.
+
+=58.= Having spent his own best strength and that of his empire in this
+disastrous war, Xerxes made no further effort for military glory, but
+gave himself up to luxurious indolence. The highest rewards were offered
+to him who could invent a new pleasure. His subjects followed the example
+of their king; the empire was weakened by licentiousness and distracted
+by violence. It was only a fitting close to such a reign, when, at the
+end of twenty years, Xerxes was murdered by Artaba´nus, the captain of
+his guard, and Aspami´tres, his chamberlain.
+
+=59.= REIGN OF ARTAXERXES I. B. C. 465-425. The assassins placed upon the
+throne the youngest son of their victim, Artaxerxes Longimanus, or the
+Long-Handed. The eldest son, Darius, was executed on a false charge of
+having murdered his father. The second, Hystas´pes, claimed the crown,
+but was defeated and slain in battle. The crimes of the real assassins
+were proved against them, and they were punished with death. Artaxerxes
+enjoyed an undisputed reign of forty years, during which the power of the
+empire declined, notwithstanding his beneficent efforts to promote the
+interests of his people.
+
+[Sidenote: B. C. 460.]
+
+[Sidenote: B. C. 455.]
+
+=60.= EGYPTIAN REVOLT. In the early part of his reign Egypt revolted
+under I´narus, son of Psammet´ichus, who was aided by the Athenians.
+Achaemenes, brother of the king, was sent with a great army to punish
+the rebellion; but he was defeated and slain by the hand of Inarus in
+the battle of Papre´mis, and a vast number of Persians perished. The
+remainder of the army were shut up in the White Castle at Memphis, and
+suffered a siege of three years. A new force, led by Megaby´zus, was more
+successful: Memphis was relieved, Inarus taken, and the Athenian fleet
+destroyed. Amyrtæ´us, the ally of Inarus, held out six years longer in
+the marshes of the Delta, until, by the intervention of Athens, peace
+was made. The Persians were defeated with great loss off Salamis, in
+Cyprus, and consented to very humiliating terms. They engaged not to
+visit with fleet or army the western shores of Asia Minor, but to respect
+the independence of the Asiatic Greeks. Even the leader of the revolt was
+punished only by the loss of his principality.
+
+=61.= Contrary to the solemn agreement of Megabyzus, Inarus, after five
+years at the Persian court, was given up, with fifty Athenian companions,
+to the vengeance of the queen-mother, and suffered a barbarous death
+for having slain Achaemenes. Disgusted by this violation of his honor,
+Megabyzus stirred up a revolt in his province of Syria. He was the
+greatest general in the empire, and the success of his operations
+against the forces sent to subdue him, so alarmed his master that he was
+permitted to dictate his own terms of peace. The intercessions of his
+wife, Am´ytis, sister of the king, aided much in his reconciliation; but
+the example was ruinous to the strict organization of the provinces which
+Darius had introduced. The tendencies to decay now acted with greater and
+greater rapidity.
+
+=62.= In the seventh year of Artaxerxes’ reign, a new migration of
+Jews was led from Babylon by Ezra, a man of priestly lineage and high
+in favor at the Persian court. Laden with contributions from the Jews
+of Babylonia, he arrived in Jerusalem with great treasures for the
+completion of the temple, and for the reëstablishment of civil government
+throughout the country. He found that the people had allied themselves
+with the neighboring tribes by marriage, and insisted on the immediate
+dismissal of all heathen members from Jewish households.
+
+=63.= The defeat of the Persians at Cyprus, 449 B. C., operated to a
+certain degree in favor of the Jews; for all the maritime ports of the
+empire having been ceded, the natural fortress of Zion, commanding the
+roads between Egypt and the capital, became of great importance. Hitherto
+the Persian monarchs had forbidden Jerusalem to be fortified, but in the
+twentieth year of Artaxerxes’ reign, Nehemi´ah, the Jewish cup-bearer of
+the great king, received a commission to rebuild its walls. He moved with
+great celerity and secrecy, for the neighboring Samaritans, Ammonites,
+and Arabians, no longer awed, as formerly, by a decree of the empire,
+violently opposed the work. Laboring by night, with tools in one hand and
+weapons in the other, the Jews of every rank gave themselves so zealously
+to the task, that in fifty-two days Jerusalem was inclosed by walls and
+towers strong enough to defy her foes. (Nehemiah i-v: 16.)
+
+Meanwhile Ezra, relieved from the civil command, labored at his great
+work, the collection and editing of the Sacred Books. During the
+captivity many writings had been lost, among them the Book of Jasher,
+that of “The Wars of the Lord,” the writings of Gad and Iddo, the
+prophets, and the works of Solomon on Natural History. The sacred books
+which remained were arranged in three great divisions: the Law, the
+Prophets, and the Hagiographa; the latter including Job, the Psalms, and
+Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, Canticles, Ruth, Daniel, and the Chronicles. The
+Books of Malachi, Ezra, Nehemiah, and Esther were afterward added, and
+the canon closed.
+
+=64.= On the departure of Nehemiah the old disorders returned. Ezra
+died; the high priest allied himself with the deadliest enemy of the
+Jewish faith, Tobi´ah the Ammonite, to whom he gave lodgings in the
+temple. The Sabbath was broken; Tyrian traders sold their merchandise
+in the gates of Jerusalem on the Holy Day. Nehemiah returned with the
+power of a satrap, and with his usual skill reformed these abuses. He
+expelled Manasseh, who had now become high priest, because he had married
+a daughter of Sanballat the Horonite. The pagan father-in-law hereupon
+built a rival temple on the summit of Mount Gerizim, of which Manasseh
+became high priest. The bitter hatred arising from this schism continued
+for centuries, and did not cease even with the destruction of the temple
+at Jerusalem, A. D. 70. “The Jews had no dealings with the Samaritans.”
+From the time of the division there was no more intermingling of pagan
+elements in the religion and customs of Judæa. The Hebrews became
+not only the most rigidly monotheistic, but, in spite of their later
+wanderings, the most nearly isolated of all the nations.
+
+=65.= XERXES II. Artaxerxes died B. C. 425, and was succeeded by his son,
+Xerxes II. After a reign of only forty-five days, the young king was
+assassinated by his half-brother, Sogdia´nus; and the funeral train of
+his father was overtaken, on its way to the royal tombs at Persepolis, by
+his own.
+
+=66.= SOGDIANUS. B. C. 425, 424. The murderer enjoyed the fruits of his
+crime but little more than half a year. Another half-brother, O´chus,
+revolted with the satraps of Egypt and Armenia and the general of the
+royal cavalry. Sogdianus was deposed and put to death.
+
+=67.= DARIUS II. B. C. 424-405. Ochus, ascending the throne, took the
+name of Darius, to which the Greeks added the contemptuous surname
+No´thus. This prince spent the nineteen years of his reign under the
+control of his wife, Parysa´tis, who surpassed her mother, Amas´tris, in
+wickedness and cruelty. The empire, meanwhile, was shaken by continual
+revolts, and the means that were taken to quell them compromised instead
+of confirming the integrity of the nation. Promises were made which were
+never intended to be kept, for the purpose of leading on the rebellious
+satraps to their destruction; and the tools of these falsehoods,
+instead of resenting, like Megabyzus, the loss of their honor, gladly
+accepted the spoils of their victims. The precautions of Darius I were
+disregarded; civil and military powers were combined in the same person,
+and two or three countries were often united under the rule of one
+satrap. These great governments, descending often from father to son,
+became more like independent kingdoms than provinces of the empire.
+
+=68.= The Medes, after more than a century of submission to Persian
+rule, attempted to free themselves, B. C. 408, but were defeated. The
+Egyptians, being more distant, were more successful. Always the most
+discontented of the Persian provinces, their opposition was even more a
+matter of religion than of patriotism, and was constantly fomented by the
+priests. Under two successive dynasties of native kings, they were now
+able to maintain their independence nearly sixty years. B. C. 405-346.
+
+=69.= While the empire was undergoing these losses, it gained a great
+advantage in the recovery of the Greek cities of Asia Minor. The
+Athenians and Spartans had been wasting their forces against each other
+in the Peloponnesian war (B. C. 431-404), which, more than any regard to
+their engagements, had interrupted their hostile attempts against Persia.
+The power of Athens was now broken by disasters in Sicily; and the Lydian
+satrap, Tissapher´nes, seized the occasion to cultivate the alliance
+of Sparta, and aid the Athenian colonies, Lesbos, Chios, and Erythræ,
+in their intended revolt. Pharnaba´zus, satrap of the Hellespontine
+provinces, pursued the same course; and through the rivalry of the two
+Greek states, their ancient enemy gained undisputed possession of “all
+Asia.”
+
+Cyrus, the younger son of the king, becoming satrap of Phrygia, Lydia,
+and Cappadocia, used his wealth and power without reserve to aid the
+Lacedemonians and humble the Athenians. He declared to Lysan´der, the
+Spartan admiral, that if it were needful he would sell his very throne,
+or coin it into money, to meet the expenses of the war. This liberality
+had another cause than friendship. The Spartans were esteemed the best
+soldiers in the world, and Cyrus was preparing for a bold and difficult
+movement in which he wanted their assistance.
+
+=70.= This young prince had been “born in the purple,” while his elder
+brother had been born before their father’s accession to the throne. With
+this pretext, which had availed in the case of Xerxes I, his mother,
+Parysatis, whose favorite he was, strove in vain to persuade Darius to
+name him his successor in the empire. Cyrus assumed royal state in his
+province; and though naturally haughty and cruel, he managed to gain
+the affection of his courtiers by his amiable manners, while his more
+brilliant qualities commanded their admiration. Darius, alarmed by his
+son’s unbounded ambition, recalled him to the capital, which he reached
+only in time to witness his father’s death and his brother’s accession to
+the throne.
+
+=71.= B. C. 405-359. ARTAXERXES II was called Mnemon, for his wonderful
+memory. His first royal act was to cast his brother into prison, upon
+a report, probably too well founded, that he was plotting against the
+life of the king. Cyrus was condemned to die, but his mother, who had
+instigated the plot, plead for him with such effect, that Artaxerxes not
+only spared his life, but sent him back to his satrapy. If Cyrus was
+ambitious and rebellious before, he had now the additional motive of
+revenge urging him to dethrone his brother and reign in his stead. He
+raised an army of Greek mercenaries, for a pretended expedition against
+the robbers of Pisid´ia, and set out from Sardis in the spring of 401.
+
+[Sidenote: B. C. 401.]
+
+Artaxerxes was informed of his movements by Tissaphernes, and was well
+prepared to meet him. The Greeks learned the real object of their march
+too late to draw back. The army passed through Phrygia and Cilicia,
+entered Syria by the mountain-passes near Issus, crossed the Euphrates
+at Thap´sacus, and advanced to the plain of Cunax´a, about fifty-seven
+miles from Babylon. Here he encountered a royal army at least four times
+as numerous as his own. The Greeks sustained their ancient renown by
+utterly routing the Asiatics who were opposed to them; but Cyrus, rashly
+penetrating to the Persian center, where his brother commanded in person,
+was stricken down by one of the royal guard. He had already wounded the
+king. Artaxerxes commanded his head and traitorous right hand to be cut
+off, and his fate ended the battle.
+
+[Illustration: EMPIRE of the PERSIANS.]
+
+=72.= The Grecian auxiliaries who had been entrapped into the war by
+Cyrus now found themselves in a perilous position. Their Persian allies
+were scattered; they were in the heart of an unknown and hostile country,
+two thousand miles from home, and surrounded by the victorious army
+of Artaxerxes. The wily Tissaphernes, who had been rewarded with the
+dominions of Cyrus, detained them nearly a month by false pretenses of
+negotiation; and having led them as far as the head-waters of the Tigris,
+gained possession of all their officers, whom he caused to be put to
+death. At this crisis, the Athenian Xen´ophon, who had accompanied the
+army of Cyrus, though not as a soldier, called together the principal
+Greeks at midnight, and urged the election of new officers who should
+lead them back to their native land. The suggestion was adopted; five
+generals were chosen, of whom Xenophon was one, and by break of day the
+army had been mustered for its homeward march.
+
+Here began the Retreat of the Ten Thousand, celebrated in the annals of
+war as, perhaps, the most remarkable instance of an enterprise conducted
+against prodigious obstacles, with perfect coolness, valor, and success.
+Tissaphernes with his army hung upon their rear, hostile barbarians were
+in front, and to the fatigues of the march were added the perils of
+frequent battles. Their course lay over the table-lands of Armenia, where
+many perished in the freezing north winds, or were blinded by the unusual
+glare of snow. The survivors pressed on with indomitable spirit, until,
+ascending a mountain south of Tra´pezus, they beheld, far away to the
+north-west, the dark waters of the Euxine. Their greatest perils were now
+over; a joyous cry, “The sea! the sea!” arose from the front rank and was
+quickly caught up by those behind. Officers and soldiers embraced each
+other with tears of joy; and all united to erect upon this happy lookout
+a monument of the trophies collected during their wearisome journey.
+
+[Sidenote: B. C. 387.]
+
+=73.= By their part in the rebellion of Cyrus, however involuntary, the
+Spartans had given unpardonable offense to Artaxerxes, and they resolved
+to be the first movers in the war which must ensue. Securing the services
+of the Ten Thousand, they attacked the Persians in Asia Minor with a
+success which promised a speedy end to their dominion. But Persia had
+grown wiser since the days of Xerxes, and fought the Greeks not so much
+with her unwieldy masses of troops as with subtle intrigue. By means
+of skillful emissaries well supplied with gold, she brought about a
+league between the secondary states of Greece—Argos, Corinth, Athens,
+and Thebes—which at once overbalanced the power of Sparta. Persian ships
+had part in the battle of Cnidus, by which the confederates gained the
+dominion of the sea. B. C. 394. Sparta was reduced to accepting the
+humiliating peace of Antal´cidas, by which the Asiatic Greeks were left
+under the control of Persia, and the great king gained an authoritative
+voice in all quarrels between the Grecian states.
+
+=74.= Artaxerxes was haunted by the desire to restore the empire to its
+greatest extent under Darius Hystaspes. He reöccupied Samos, which he
+intended as a stepping-stone to the rest of the Greek islands; and sent
+a great expedition into Egypt under the joint command of Iphic´rates, an
+Athenian, and Pharnabazus, a Persian general. This enterprise failed,
+partly through the jealousies of the two commanders; and the failure
+hastened a revolt in the western satrapies, which came near to overturn
+the empire. Egypt now retaliated, and attempted to revive her ancient
+glories by the conquest of Syria and Phœnicia. But these movements were
+defeated by management and gold, and Artaxerxes left his dominion with
+nearly the same boundaries which it had at the beginning of his reign.
+
+=75.= REIGN OF ARTAXERXES III. B. C. 359-338. The death of Artaxerxes
+II was followed by the usual crimes and atrocities which attended a
+change upon the Persian throne. His youngest son, Ochus, seized the crown
+after the murder of his eldest and the suicide of his second brother. He
+assumed the name of Artaxerxes III, and by his energy and spirit did much
+to retrieve the failing prosperity of the empire. He did not, however,
+abate the inherent sources of its weakness in the corruptions of the
+court. Family affection had been replaced by jealousy and hatred. The
+first act of Ochus was the extermination of his own royal race, in order
+that no rival might remain to dispute his throne. His more ambitious
+enterprises were delayed by a revolt of Artabazus in Asia Minor, which
+was abetted by Athens and Thebes. The defeated satrap fled to Philip of
+Macedon, whose ready protection and Ochus’s retaliatory measures led to
+the most important results. These will be detailed in Book IV.
+
+=76.= About B. C. 351, Ochus was ready to attempt the subjugation of
+Egypt. He was defeated in his first campaign, and retired into Persia to
+recruit his forces. This retreat was the signal for innumerable revolts.
+Phœnicia placed herself under the independent government of the king
+of Sidon; Cyprus set up nine native sovereigns; in Asia Minor a dozen
+separate kingdoms were asserted, if not established. But the spirit of
+Artaxerxes III was equal to the occasion. He raised a second armament,
+hired ten thousand Greek mercenaries, and proceeded in person to war
+against Phœnicia and Egypt. Sidon was taken and Phœnicia subdued. Mentor
+the Rhodian, who, in the service of the king of Egypt was aiding the
+Sidonians, went over to the Persians with four thousand Greeks. Egypt was
+then invaded with more success. Nectanebo was defeated and expelled, and
+his country again reduced to a Persian satrapy.
+
+=77.= Most of the later victories of Artaxerxes were due to the valor
+of his Greek auxiliaries, or to the treachery or incapacity of his
+opponents. After the reëstablishment of his government, he abandoned
+himself to the pleasures of his palace, while the control of affairs
+rested exclusively with Bago´as, his minister, and Mentor, his general.
+The people were only reminded from time to time of his existence by some
+unusually bloody mandate. Whatever hope might have been inspired by his
+really great abilities, was disappointed at once by his unscrupulous
+violence and indolent self-indulgence. He died of poison by the hand of
+Bagoas, B. C. 338.
+
+=78.= ARSES. B. C. 338-336. The perfidious minister destroyed not merely
+the king himself, but all the royal princes except Ar´ses, the youngest,
+whom he placed upon the throne, believing that, as a mere boy, he would
+be subservient to his control. After two years he was alarmed by some
+signs of independent character in his pupil, and added Arses to the
+number of his victims. He now conferred the sovereignty upon Darius
+Codoman´nus, a grandson of Darius II, whom he regarded as a friend, but
+who commenced his reign by an act of summary justice, in the execution of
+the wretch to whom he owed his crown. B. C. 336.
+
+=79.= REIGN OF DARIUS III. B. C. 336-331. As has often happened in
+the world’s history, one of the best of the Persian kings had to bear
+the results of the tyrannies of his predecessors. Darius was not
+more distinguished for his personal beauty than for the uprightness
+and benevolence of his character; and as satrap of Armenia, before
+his accession to the throne, he had won great applause both for his
+bravery as a soldier and his skill as a general. But the Greeks, whose
+reasons for hostility against the Persians had been two hundred years
+accumulating, had now, at last, a leader more ambitious than Xerxes, and
+more able than Cyrus. Already, before Darius had mounted the throne,
+Alexander the Great had succeeded his father in Macedon, had been
+appointed general-in-chief of all the Greek forces, and had commenced his
+movement against Asia.
+
+=80.= The Persian monarch despised the presumption of an inexperienced
+boy, and made no effort, by aiding the European enemies of Alexander,
+to crush the new foe in his cradle. The satraps and generals shared the
+confidence of their master, and though a large force was collected in
+Mysia, no serious opposition was made to his passage of the Hellespont.
+In B. C. 334, Alexander with his 35,000 Greeks crossed the strait which
+had been passed by Xerxes, with his five millions, less than 150 years
+before. The Greek army was scarcely more inferior to the Persian in
+number than superior in efficiency. It was composed of veteran troops in
+the highest possible state of equipment and discipline, and every man was
+filled with enthusiastic devotion to his leader and confidence of success.
+
+Memnon, a brother of Mentor the Rhodian, with the satraps Spithrida´tes
+and Arsi´tes, commanded the Persians in Asia Minor. Their first
+collision with Alexander was in the attempt to prevent his passage of
+the Grani´cus, a little Mysian river which flows into the Propon´tis.
+They were totally defeated, and Alexander, advancing southward, subdued,
+or rather liberated all the cities of the western coast without long
+delay. Halicarnas´sus, under the command of Memnon, made an obstinate
+resistance, and it was only at the end of autumn that it surrendered.
+Memnon then resolved to carry the war into Greece. He gathered a large
+fleet and captured many islands in the Ægean; but his death at Mytile´ne
+relieved Alexander of the most able of his opponents.
+
+=81.= The king of Macedon wintered at Gor´dium, where he cut or untied
+the celebrated knot, which an ancient prophecy had declared could never
+be loosened except by the conqueror of Asia. With fresh reinforcements
+from Greece, he commenced his second campaign, in the spring of 333, by
+marching through Cappadocia and Cilicia to the gates of Syria. Darius
+met him, in the narrow plain of Issus, with an army of half a million
+men. Hemmed in between the mountains, the river, and the sea, the
+Persian horsemen could not act, and their immense numbers were rather
+an incumbrance than an advantage. Darius was defeated and fled across
+the Euphrates. His mother, wife, and children fell into the hands of the
+conqueror, who treated them with the utmost delicacy and respect.
+
+=82.= B. C. 333-331. The conquests of Syria, Phœnicia, and Egypt, which
+Alexander now accomplished in less than two years, will be described in
+the Macedonian history. In the spring of 331, he retraced his triumphant
+march through Syria, crossed the Euphrates at Thapsacus, traversed
+Mesopotamia, and met Darius again on the great Assyrian plain east of the
+Tigris. The Persian king had spent the twenty months which had intervened
+since the battle of Issus in mustering the entire force of his empire.
+The ground was carefully selected as most favorable to the movements of
+cavalry, and as giving him the full advantage of his superior numbers.
+A large space was leveled and hardened with rollers for the evolutions
+of the scythe-armed chariots. An important part of the infantry was
+formed of the brave and hardy mountaineers of Afghanistan, Bokhara,
+Khiva, and Thibet; and the cavalry, of the ancestors of the modern
+Kurds and Turcomans, a race always distinguished for bold and skillful
+horsemanship. A brigade of Greek auxiliaries was alone considered able
+to withstand the charge of Alexander’s phalanx. Altogether the forces of
+Darius numbered more than a million of men, and they surpassed all former
+general levies of the Persians in the efficient discipline which enabled
+them to act together as one body.
+
+=83.= The Macedonian phalanx, which formed the center of Alexander’s
+army, was the most effective body of heavy-armed troops known to ancient
+tactics. The men were placed sixteen deep, armed with the _sarissa_,
+or long pike, twenty-four feet in length. When set for action, the
+spear-heads of the first six ranks projected from the front. In receiving
+a charge, the shield of each man, held over the head with the left arm,
+overlapped that of his neighbor; so that the entire body resembled
+a monster clothed in the shell of a tortoise and the bristles of a
+porcupine. So long as it held together, the phalanx was invincible.
+Whether it advanced its vast weight upon an enemy like a solid wall of
+steel bristling with spear-points, or, kneeling, with each pike planted
+in the ground, awaited the attack, few dared to encounter it.
+
+=84.= BATTLE OF ARBELA. On the morning of the 1st of October, B. C.
+331, the two great forces met upon the plain of Gaugame´la. Alexander
+fought at the head of his cavalry, on the right of his army. Darius,
+in the Persian center, animated his men both by word and example.
+Both sides fought with wonderful bravery, but the perfect discipline
+of the Macedonians gained at length a complete victory. The Persian
+war-chariots, which, with long scythes extending from their wheels, were
+intended to make great havoc among the Greek horse, were rendered useless
+by a detachment of light-armed troops trained for the purpose, who, first
+wounding horses and drivers with their javelins, ran beside the horses
+and cut the traces or seized the reins, while the few which reached the
+Macedonian front were allowed to pass between files which opened to
+receive them, and were easily captured in the rear. Five brigades of the
+phalanx bore down the Greek mercenaries who were opposed to them, and
+penetrated to the Persian center, where Darius commanded in person. The
+king’s charioteer was killed by a javelin; he himself mounted a fleet
+horse and galloped from the field.
+
+Elsewhere the issue of the day was much more doubtful for Alexander;
+but the news of Darius’s flight disheartened his officers, and spurred
+the Macedonians, who were outnumbered and almost overpowered, to fresh
+exertions. A party of Persian and Indian horsemen, who were plundering
+the Macedonian camp, were put to flight by a reserve corps of the
+phalanx. The fugitive king, followed at length by his whole army,
+directed his course to the city of Arbe´la, twenty miles distant, where
+his military treasures were deposited. The river Ly´cus lay in their
+way, crossed only by a narrow bridge, and the number of Persians drowned
+in this rapid stream exceeded even those who had perished upon the
+battle-field.
+
+=85.= The next day Alexander arrived at Arbela and took possession of
+its treasures. The Persian king, unhappily for himself, had escaped a
+generous conqueror only to fall into the hands of his treacherous satrap
+Bes´sus. This man had led a division of the Persian army in the battle
+of Arbela, but finding his master’s fortunes ruined, had plotted with
+some fellow-officers to seize his person, and either put him to death or
+deliver him to Alexander, hoping thus to gain for themselves important
+commands. Loaded with chains, the unhappy king was carried away by his
+servants in their flight toward Hyrca´nia; but Alexander’s troops pressed
+them closely, and finding escape impossible, they mortally wounded their
+captive and left him by the road-side to die.
+
+The former lord of Asia was indebted to a Macedonian soldier, who brought
+him a cup of cold water, for the last act of attendance. He assured
+the man that his inability to reward this service added bitterness to
+his dying moments; but commended him to Alexander, whose generosity
+he himself had proved, and who would not fail to honor this his last
+request. The conqueror came up while the lifeless remains of Darius
+still lay by the road-side. Deeply moved, he threw his own royal mantle
+over the body of his foe, and ordered that a magnificent procession
+should convey the last of the Persian kings to the tomb of his fathers.
+In the battle of Arbela the Persian empire fell. The reduction of the
+provinces occupied the few remaining years of Alexander’s life; but their
+submission was certain from the moment when the forces of Asia were put
+to flight and their monarch was a captive.
+
+
+RECAPITULATION.
+
+    Xerxes, having re-conquered Egypt, and laid all his empire
+    under contribution, led into Europe the largest army which the
+    world has seen. He gained the pass of Thermopylæ by treachery,
+    but his fleet was shattered by storms and utterly defeated at
+    Salamis. The war ended, the following year, in the overthrow
+    of Mardonius at Platæa, and the destruction of a Persian fleet
+    and army at Mycale. The forty years’ reign of Artaxerxes
+    Longimanus began the decline of the empire. A fresh immigration
+    of liberated Jews re-fortified Jerusalem, and the books of the
+    Old Testament were for the first time collected and arranged.
+    The feud with the Samaritans was perpetuated by their building
+    a rival temple on Mount Gerizim. In the reign of Darius II many
+    provinces revolted, and Egypt remained independent sixty years.
+    Upon the death of Darius, his younger son Cyrus, with the
+    aid of 10,000 Spartan mercenaries, made war upon his brother
+    Artaxerxes Mnemon, but he was defeated and slain at Cunaxa.
+    A general war followed, in which Sparta was humbled by the
+    combined forces of Persia and the minor states of Greece, and
+    the treaty of Antalcidas made the great king arbiter in Grecian
+    affairs. Artaxerxes III, having murdered all his kindred,
+    re-conquered Syria, Phœnicia, and Egypt. He was destroyed, with
+    all his children, by Bagoas, his minister, who conferred the
+    sovereignty on Darius Codomannus. This last of the Achaemenidæ
+    was defeated by Alexander the Great at Issus, and finally at
+    Arbela; and all the dominions of Persia became parts of the
+    Macedonian Empire.
+
+
+QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW.
+
+BOOK II.
+
+   1. Who and what were the Persians?                                 § 1.
+   2. What were their relations with the Medes?    Book I, 39; Book II, 2.
+   3. What led to the revolution in the Medo-Persian dominion?       3, 4.
+   4. Describe the wars of Cyrus.                                 5, 7, 9.
+   5.          His treatment of the Lydians.                            6.
+   6. What led to the return of the Jews?                               8.
+   7. What was the character of Cambyses?                              12.
+   8. Describe his Egyptian campaign.                                  13.
+   9.          His operations beyond Egypt.                        14, 15.
+  10.          His behavior at Memphis.                                17.
+  12.          The last days of Cambyses.                              18.
+  13.          The reign and dethronement of the false Smerdis.        19.
+  14.          The revolts against Darius Hystaspes.                   20.
+  15.          His system of government.                           21, 22.
+  16.          His court and retinue.                              23, 24.
+  17. Compare the religious systems of the Persians, Hindus,
+        and Medes.                                                  25-28.
+  18. What causes of corruption in the Persian court?                  29.
+  19. Describe the wars of Darius I.                                30-32.
+  20.          The causes and incidents of the Ionian revolt.      33, 34.
+  21.          The Persian measures of revenge against the
+                   Athenians.                                       35-40.
+  22.          The memorials of Darius Hystaspes.             41 and Note.
+  23. Describe the beginning of Xerxes’ reign.                     42, 43.
+  24.          His preparations against Greece.                     44-46.
+  25.          The passage of the Hellespont.                          47.
+  26.          The magnitude of the army.                          48, 49.
+  27.          The first battle with the Greeks.                       51.
+  28.          The disasters by sea.                                   52.
+  29. What occurred at Delphi? At Athens? At Salamis?               53-55.
+  30. Describe the retreat of Xerxes, and his subsequent career.   56, 58.
+  31.          The operations of Mardonius in Greece.                  57.
+  32.          The accession of Artaxerxes Longimanus.                 59.
+  33.          The revolts during his reign.                       60, 61.
+  34.          The affairs of the Jews under Artaxerxes.            62-64.
+  35. Who were the next three kings?                                65-67.
+  36. What was the condition of the kingdom under Darius II?       67, 68.
+  37. Describe the enterprise of Cyrus the younger.                 69-71.
+  38.          Its results to the Greeks.                          72, 73.
+  39.          The reign of Artaxerxes Mnemon.                         74.
+  40.          The reign of Artaxerxes III.                         75-77.
+  41. Who succeeded him?                                               78.
+  42. What was the character of Darius III?                            79.
+  43. Compare the armies of Alexander and Darius.              80, 82, 83.
+  44. Describe the battles of Issus and Arbela.                    81, 84.
+  45.          The fate of Darius.                                     85.
+  46. How long had the Persian Empire continued?
+  47. How many kings, commencing with Cyrus?
+  48. What was its greatest extent, described by boundaries?
+  49. What is meant by a _satrapy_?
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+
+
+BOOK III.
+
+GRECIAN STATES AND COLONIES FROM THEIR EARLIEST PERIOD TO THE ACCESSION
+OF ALEXANDER THE GREAT.
+
+
+GEOGRAPHICAL OUTLINE OF GREECE.
+
+=1.= Of the three peninsulas which extend southward into the
+Mediterranean, the most easterly was first settled, and became the seat
+of the highest civilization which the ancient world could boast. Its
+southern portion only was occupied by Greece, which extended from the
+40th parallel southward to the 36th. Continental Greece never equaled
+in size the state of Ohio. Its greatest length, from Mount Olym´pus to
+Cape Tæn´arum, was 250 miles; and its greatest breadth, from Actium to
+Marathon, was but 180. Yet this little space was divided into twenty-four
+separate countries, each of which was politically independent of all the
+rest.
+
+=2.= The most peculiar trait of the Grecian peninsula is the great extent
+of its coast as compared with its area. It is almost cut into three
+distinct portions by deep indentations of the sea, northern Greece being
+separated from the central portion by the Ambra´cian and Ma´lian, and
+central Greece from the Peloponnesus by the Corinth´ian and Saron´ic
+gulfs. A country thus surrounded and penetrated by water, of necessity
+became maritime. The islands of the Ægean afforded easy stepping-stones
+from Europe to Asia. Opposite, on the south, was one of the most fertile
+portions of Africa; and, on the west, the Italian peninsula was only
+thirty miles distant at the narrowest portion of the channel.
+
+=3.= The northern boundary of Greece is the Cambu´nian range, which
+crosses the peninsula from east to west. About midway between the two
+seas, this range is intersected by that of Pin´dus, which runs from north
+to south, like the Ap´ennines of Italy. This lofty chain sends off a
+branch toward the eastern coast, which, running parallel to the Cambunian
+at a distance of sixty miles, incloses the beautiful plain of Thes´saly.
+West of Mount Pindus is Epi´rus, a rough and mountainous country
+inhabited by various tribes, some Greek, some barbarian. Its ridges,
+running north and south, were alternated with well-watered valleys.
+Through the most easterly of these flows the Achelo´us, the largest
+river in Greece. Near its source were the sacred oaks of Dodo´na, in the
+rustling of whose leaves the voice of the supreme divinity was believed
+to be heard.
+
+=4.= Central Greece was occupied by eleven states: At´tica, Meg´aris,
+Bœo´tia, Malis, Ænia´nia, eastern and western Locris, Phocis, Doris,
+Æto´lia, and Ac´arna´nia. Between Ætolia and Doris, Mount Pindus divides
+into two branches. One of these runs south-easterly into Attica, and
+comprises the noted summits of Parnas´sus, Hel´icon, Cithæ´ron, and
+Hymet´tus; the other turns to the southward, and reaches the sea near the
+entrance of the Corinthian Gulf.
+
+Attica is a triangular peninsula, having two sides washed by the sea
+and its base united to the land. Protected by its mountain barriers of
+Cithæron and Par´nes, it suffered less from war in early times than other
+parts of the country; and the olive, its chief production, became for all
+ages a symbol of peace.
+
+=5.= Southern Greece contained eleven countries: Cor´inth, Sicyo´nia,
+Acha´ia, E´lis, Arca´dia, Messe´nia, Laco´nia, Ar´golis, Epidau´ria,
+Trœze´nia, and Hermi´onis.
+
+The territory of Corinth occupied the isthmus between the Corinthian and
+Saronic gulfs; and by its two ports, Lechæ´um and Cen´chreae, carried
+on an extensive commerce both with the eastern and western seas. Thus
+admirably situated, Corinth, the chief city, was noted for its wealth
+even in the time of Homer.
+
+Sicyonia was considered the oldest state in Greece, and Argolis next.
+The ruins of Tir´yns and Myce´næ, in the latter, existed long before the
+beginning of authentic history.
+
+Elis was the Holy Land of the Helle´nes. Every foot of its territory was
+sacred to Zeus, and it was sacrilege to bear arms within its limits.
+Thus it was at peace when all Greece beside was at war; and though its
+wealth surpassed that of all the neighboring states, its capital remained
+unwalled.
+
+Arcadia, the Switzerland of the Peloponnesus, was the only Grecian state
+without a sea-coast. Its wild, precipitous rocks were clothed in gloomy
+forests, and buried during a great part of the year in fogs and snows.
+Its people were rustic and illiterate; they worshiped Pan, the god of
+shepherds and hunters, but if they returned empty-handed from the chase,
+they expressed their disgust by pricking or scourging his image.
+
+Messenia occupied the south-western corner of Greece, and encircled
+a gulf to which it gave its name. Laconia embraced the other two
+promontories in which the Peloponnesus terminates, together with a larger
+tract to the northward. It consisted mainly of a long valley bounded by
+two high ranges, whence it was sometimes called _Hollow_ La´cedæ´mon.
+Down the center of the vale flowed the Euro´tas, whose sources were in
+the steep recesses of Mount Tay´getus. Sparta, the capital, was the only
+important town. It lay on the Eurotas about twenty miles from the sea,
+inclosed by an amphitheater of mountains which shut out cooling winds and
+concentrated the sun’s rays, so as to produce intense heat in summer.
+
+=6.= Although the name of Greece is now strictly limited to the peninsula
+which we have described, it was often more generally applied by the
+ancients to all the homes and colonies of the Hellenic race. The south of
+Italy was long known as _Mag´na Græ´cia_; the eastern shores of the Ægean
+constituted Asiatic Greece, and the cities of Cyrene in Africa, Syracuse
+in Sicily, and Massilia in southern France, were all, to the Greeks,
+equally essential parts of Hellas. The description of the numerous and
+important colonies belongs to a later period. A few of the islands more
+immediately belonging to Greece will alone be mentioned here.
+
+=7.= Chief of these was Eubϫa, the great breakwater of the eastern
+coast, which extended a distance of 100 miles in length and 15 in width.
+Nearly as important, though smaller, was Corcy´ra, on the western
+coast; and south of it lay Paxos, Leuca´dia, Ith´aca, Cephalle´nia, and
+Zacyn´thus. On the south were the Œnus´sæ and the important island of
+Cythe´ra. On the east, among others were Hy´drea, Ægina, and Salamis.
+Besides these littoral, or coast, islands there were, in the northern
+Ægean, Lemnos, Imbros, Thasos, and Samothra´ce; in the central, the
+Cyc´lades; and, in the southern, the large island of Crete.
+
+
+HISTORY OF GREECE.
+
+PERIODS.
+
+    I. Traditional and Fabulous History, from the earliest times to
+    the Dorian Migrations, about B. C. 1100.
+
+    II. Authentic History, from the Dorian Migrations to the
+    beginning of the Persian wars; B. C. 1100-500.
+
+    III. From the beginning of the Persian wars to the victory of
+    Philip of Macedon at Chæronea, B. C. 500-336.
+
+=8.= FIRST PERIOD. The name of Greece was unknown to the Greeks, who
+called their country _Hellas_ and themselves _Helle´nes_. But the Romans,
+having probably made their first acquaintance with the people of that
+peninsula through the _Grai´koi_, a tribe who inhabited the coast nearest
+Italy, applied their name to the whole Hellenic race. A more ancient
+name, _Pelas´gia_, was derived from the earliest known inhabitants of the
+country—a widely extended people, who may be traced by the remains of
+their massive architecture in various parts of Italy as well as Greece.
+The _Pelasgi_ were among the first of the Indo-Germanic family to migrate
+from Asia to Europe.
+
+=9.= By conquest or influence, the Hellenes very early acquired the
+control of their neighbors, and spread their name, language, and customs
+over the whole peninsula. They were then regarded as consisting of four
+tribes, the Dorians, Achæ´ans, Æo´lians, and Ionians; but the last two,
+if not all four, were probably members of the earlier race.
+
+=10.= Though of the same family with the Medes, Persians, Bactrians, and
+the Brahmins of India, the Greeks had no tradition of a migration from
+Asia, but believed that their ancestors had sprung from the ground. They,
+however, acknowledged themselves indebted, for some important elements
+of their civilization, to immigrants from foreign lands. _Ce´crops_, a
+native of Sais in Egypt, was said to have founded Athens, and to have
+established its religious rites. The citadel bore, from him, the name
+Cecro´pia in later times. Better authorities make Cecrops a Pelasgian
+hero. _Da´naus_, another reputed Egyptian, was believed to have founded
+Argos, having fled to Greece with his fifty daughters. To him the tribe
+of the Da´nai traced their name, which Homer sometimes applied to all the
+Greeks; but the story is evidently a fable.
+
+_Pe´lops_ was said to have come from Phrygia, and by means of his great
+wealth to have gained the kingdom of Mycenæ. The whole peninsula south of
+the Corinthian Gulf bore his name, being called Peloponnesus. A fourth
+tradition which describes the settlement of the Phœnician _Cad´mus_
+at Thebes, in Bœotia, rests upon better evidence. He is said to have
+introduced the use of letters, the art of mining, and the culture of
+the vine. It is certain that the Greek alphabet was derived from the
+Phœnician; and Cadmus may be regarded, in this elementary sense, as the
+founder of European literature. The fortress of Thebes was called, from
+him, Cadme´a.
+
+=11.= The earliest period of Grecian history is called the Heroic Age.
+In later times, poets and sculptors loved to celebrate its leaders as a
+nobler race than themselves, ranking between gods and men; differing from
+the former by being subject to death, but surpassing the latter both in
+strength of body and greatness of mind. The innumerable exploits of the
+Heroes must be read rather in Mythology than History. The three who had
+the strongest hold in the belief, and influence upon the character of the
+people, were Hercules, the great national hero; The´seus, the hero of
+Attica; and Minos, king of Crete.
+
+The “Twelve Labors of Hercules” represent the struggle of Man with
+Nature, both in the destruction of physical evil and the acquisition of
+wealth and power. To understand his reputed history, we must bear in mind
+that, in that early age, lions as well as other savage beasts were still
+numerous in southern Europe; that large tracts were covered by undrained
+marshes and impenetrable forests; and that a wild, aboriginal race of
+men, more dangerous than the beasts, haunted land and sea as robbers and
+pirates.
+
+=12.= Theseus was the civilizer of Attica. He established a
+constitutional government, and instituted the two great festivals, the
+Panathenæa[32] and Synoikia, in honor of the patron goddess of Athens.
+The Isthmian Games, in honor of Neptune, were also traced to him.
+
+=13.= Minos, king of Crete, was regarded by the Greeks as the first
+great law-giver, and thus a principal founder of civilization and social
+order. After his death he was believed to be one of the judges of souls
+in Hades. It is worth noticing that the traditional law-givers of many
+nations have borne similar names; and Menu in India, Menes in Egypt,
+Manis in Lydia, Minos in Crete, and Mannus in Germany may all be mythical
+names for _Man_ the Thinker, as distinguished from the savage.
+
+[Sidenote: B. C. 1194.]
+
+[Sidenote: B. C. 1184.]
+
+=14.= Of the many remarkable enterprises of the Grecian heroes, the last
+and greatest was the Siege of Troy. Zeus,[33] pitying the earth—so says
+the fable—for the swarming multitudes she was compelled to sustain,
+resolved to send discord among men that they might destroy each other.
+The occasion of war was found in the wrong inflicted upon Menelaus, king
+of Sparta, by Paris, son of Priam, king of Troy. All the Greek princes,
+resenting the injury, assembled their forces from the extremities of
+Hellas—from Mount Olympus to the islands of Ithaca, Crete, and Rhodes—and
+crossing the Ægean under the command of Agamem´non, spent ten years
+in the siege of Troy. The story of the tenth year must be read in the
+Iliad of Homer.[34] It is impossible to separate the historical from the
+poetical part in his spirited narration. Some historians have assigned a
+definite period to the siege, while others have doubted whether Troy, as
+described by Homer, ever existed.
+
+=15.= Though much doubt may be felt as to the character of their heroes
+and events, the poems of Homer give us a true picture of the government
+and manners of the Greeks at this early age. From them we learn that each
+of the petty states had its own king, who was the father, the judge, the
+general, and the priest of his people. He was supposed to be of divine
+descent and appointment. But unlike the blind believers in “divine right”
+in modern times, the Greeks demanded that their kings should prove
+themselves superior to common men in valor, wisdom, and greatness of
+soul. If thus shown to be sons of the gods, they received unquestioning
+obedience.
+
+=16.= A council of nobles surrounded the king and aided him by their
+advice. The people were often assembled to witness the discussions in
+the council and the administration of justice, as well as to hear the
+intentions of the king; but in this early age they had no voice in the
+proceedings. The nobles, like the king, were descended from the gods,
+and were distinguished by their great estates, vast wealth, and numerous
+slaves.
+
+=17.= The Greeks of the Heroic Age were distinguished by strong domestic
+attachments, generous hospitality, and a high sense of moral obligation.
+Every stranger was welcomed and supplied with the best cheer before he
+was asked his name or errand. If he came to seek protection, the family
+were under a still stronger obligation to receive him, even if he were an
+enemy; for Zeus had no mercy on him who turned away from the prayer of a
+suppliant.
+
+=18.= The manners of the age were simple and homely. The sons of the gods
+cooked their own dinners, and were proud of their skill in so doing.
+Ulysses built his bed-chamber and constructed his raft, beside being
+an excellent plowman and reaper. The high-born ladies, in like manner,
+carded and spun the wool of their husbands’ sheep, and wove it into
+clothing for themselves and their families; while their daughters brought
+water from the wells, or assisted the slaves to wash garments in the
+river.
+
+=19.= Though simple, these people were not uncivilized. They lived in
+fortified towns, adorned by palaces and temples. The palaces of the
+nobles were ornamented with vases of gold, silver, and bronze, and hung
+with rich Tyrian draperies. The warriors were protected by highly wrought
+and richly embellished armor. Agriculture was highly honored. Wheat,
+flax, wine, and oil were the chief productions.
+
+=20.= The arts of sculpture and design had already made some progress.
+Poetry was cultivated by minstrels, who wandered from place to place
+singing songs of their own composition, and were sure of an honorable
+welcome in every palace. In this way, doubtless, the blind Homer[35]
+related the brave deeds done before the walls of Troy, and praised the
+heroes of that epoch in the houses of their descendants.
+
+=21.= The religion of the Greeks had some of its first elements in common
+with that of the Hindus. Zeus, the king of gods and men, who reigned
+upon the snowy summit of Olympus, was doubtless the same conception with
+Dyaus´, the Bright Ether or Serene Heaven of the Brahmin worship. But as
+the forces of Nature were the objects of adoration, each system borrowed
+its distinctive features from those of the country in which it was
+developed, and that of the Greeks became incomparably the more delicate
+and refined. The Asiatic origin of their faith was recognized by the
+Greeks themselves, in the fable that Zeus had brought Euro´pa, daughter
+of Age´nor (the same with Canaan), in her early youth, across the
+Hellespont and through Thrace. An old tradition said that the people of
+the ante-Hellenic age worshiped all the gods, but gave names to none; a
+mystical expression of the truth that the Greeks, like most other ancient
+people, had descended from the worship of One God to the belief in many.
+
+Watching with keen eyes the various and apparently conflicting operations
+of Nature, the Greeks, unaided by revelation, were led to believe
+in many distinct and sometimes hostile gods; for their science, as
+imperfect as their religion, had not yet arrived at a perception of unity
+beneath the apparent variety, nor taught them that all forces may be
+resolved into one. Hence we read of conflicts and jealousies among the
+divine inhabitants of Olympus, of which the most ignorant child should
+be ashamed. In more enlightened ages, philosophers severely censured
+this ascription of unworthy passions to the gods, and taught that they
+should only be conceived as serene, beneficent, and superior to human
+excitements.
+
+=22.= Much of the mythology of the Greeks belonged merely to poetry, and
+had no religious character whatever. Many stories of the gods may be
+explained by the familiar appearances of nature. E´os, the dawn, was the
+sister of He´lios, the sun, and Sele´ne, the moon. She dwelt upon the
+banks of Ocean, in a golden-gated palace, whence she issued each morning
+to announce to gods and men the approach of her greater brother. She was
+the mother of the Winds and of the Morning Star. I´ris was the messenger
+of the gods. The many-colored rainbow was the road over which she
+traveled, and which vanished, when she no longer needed it, as suddenly
+as it had appeared.
+
+=23.= The twelve who constituted the Olympian Council were Zeus, the
+supreme; Posi´don, the god of the sea; Apollo, the sun-god, and patron
+of music, poetry, and eloquence; A´res, the god of war; Hephæs´tus, of
+fire and the useful arts; Her´mes, the herald of the gods, and promoter
+of commerce and wealth; Hera, the great goddess of Nature; Athe´na, the
+favorite daughter of Zeus, and patroness of all wisdom, civilization,
+and art; Ar´temis, the goddess of the moon or of hunting; Aphrodi´te, of
+beauty and love; Hestia, of domestic life; and Deme´ter, the bountiful
+mother of harvests,—six gods and six goddesses.
+
+=24.= Beside these, and in some cases equal in rank, were Hades, the god
+of the under-world; Helios and Hec´ate; Diony´sus, the patron of the
+vine, whose rites bore some resemblance to the drunken So´ma worship of
+the Hindus; the nine Muses, daughters of Zeus and Memory, who presided
+over music, literature, and all the arts; the Oceanids and the Nereids,
+daughters of Posidon; and multitudes more, whom to enumerate would
+require a volume, instead of a few pages.
+
+=25.= The religion of the Greeks, properly so called, consisted in
+reverence toward a moral Ruler of the world, ever present and actively
+concerned in human affairs; and in obedience to him by truthfulness in
+thought, word, and deed. Zeus himself was believed to watch over the
+sacred performance of all oaths. Athena was the divine Wisdom, especially
+as exercised in civil affairs. Nem´esis was the divine Justice, as
+heard either in warnings of conscience within or the reproaches of the
+world without. The Erin´nyes, or as they were flatteringly called,
+Eumen´ides,[36] were the avengers of crime, older than all the Olympian
+divinities, and dreaded alike by gods and men. The cries of the injured
+aroused them from their dark abode in Tartarus; and to the guilty man
+they appeared as fierce, implacable furies, with flaming eyes and
+extended talons, who never slept, but walked or waited constantly by
+his side from the moment of his crime till its punishment; while to the
+innocent victim, whom they avenged, they wore the form of serene and
+stately goddesses, with faces beautiful though stern.
+
+=26.= At a later period, new elements entered into the religious life
+of the Greeks, through their intercourse with other nations, especially
+with Egypt, Asia Minor, and Thrace. The most important of these was the
+idea of purification for sins, which was unknown to Homer and Hesiod,
+and was probably borrowed from the Lydians. The earliest sacrifices were
+merely expressions of gratitude, or means of obtaining the favor of the
+gods, and had nothing of the character of sin-offerings. In case of
+crime, it was impossible to turn aside the wrath of the Eumenides, either
+by prayers or sacrifices; the guilty person must suffer the extremest
+consequences of his guilt. But under the new system it was believed that
+the divine anger might be averted, and the stain of sin removed.
+
+Persons guilty of homicide, whether intentional or accidental, were
+excluded from the society of man and the worship of the gods until
+certain rites had been performed. In earlier times, a chief or king might
+officiate in the ceremony of purification, but later it was intrusted to
+priests, or to persons supposed to be specially marked for the favor of
+heaven by holiness of life. In case of public calamity, such as plague,
+famine, or defeat in war, whole cities or states underwent the process of
+purification, with a view to appease the supposed wrath of the gods for
+some hidden or open crime.
+
+=27.= Among other foreign observances were the ecstatic rites in honor
+of various divinities. Such were the Bacchanalian dances, celebrated
+at Thebes and Delphi, in honor of Dionysus, in which troops of women
+spent whole nights upon the mountains in a state of the wildest frenzy,
+shouting, leaping, clashing noisy instruments, tearing animals to pieces
+and devouring the raw flesh, and even cutting themselves with knives
+without feeling the wounds. Those who abandoned themselves freely to
+this excitement were supposed to secure the favor of the god and escape
+future visitations, while those who resisted were punished with madness.
+
+[Illustration: MAP OF ANCIENT GREECE and the ÆGEAN SEA.]
+
+=28.= Among the most solemn rites were the Mysteries celebrated at
+Eleusis in honor of Demeter and Perseph´one. These could only be
+approached by a long and secret course of preparation, and it was a crime
+even to speak of them in the presence of the uninitiated. They commanded
+the deepest reverence of the Greeks, and the participants were regarded
+as more secure than others, both in temporal and spiritual perils. When
+exposed to shipwreck, passengers commonly asked each other, “Have you
+been initiated?”
+
+The Eleusinian Mysteries, at least in their earlier form, are supposed to
+have been a remnant of the old Pelasgic worship, and thus “grounded on a
+view of nature less fanciful, more earnest, and better fitted to awaken
+both philosophical thought and religious feeling” than the Hellenic
+mythology.
+
+=29.= Another custom adopted from abroad was the formation of secret
+societies, whose members bound themselves by ascetic vows, and the
+obligation to perform, at fixed seasons, certain solemnities. Such were
+the Orphic, and afterward the Pythagorean brotherhoods. Those who entered
+upon the “Orphic Life,” as it was called, promised to abstain wholly
+from animal food, except the mystic sacrificial feast of raw flesh, and
+wore white linen garments like the Egyptian priests. Though worshipers
+of Dionysus, the Orphic brotherhood abstained from all wild and unseemly
+demonstrations, and aimed at the most severe simplicity and purity of
+life and manners. Their reputation for wisdom and holiness was abused by
+certain impostors, who used to visit the houses of the rich and offer to
+release them from the consequences both of their own sins and those of
+their forefathers, by sacrifices and expiatory songs prescribed in the
+Orphic books.
+
+=30.= We have anticipated the five or six centuries which followed the
+Heroic Age, for the sake of giving a connected though brief account of
+the religious beliefs and customs of the Greeks, without which their
+history could not be understood. It only remains to mention those oracles
+through which, from the earliest times to the latest, and even long after
+the civil existence of Greece was ended, the gods were believed to make
+known their will to man.
+
+=31.= The oldest of the oracles was that of Zeus at Dodona, where the
+message of the god was believed to be heard in the rustling of the
+sacred oaks and beeches, and interpreted by his chosen priests or
+prophetesses. At Olympia, in Elis, the will of Zeus was read in the
+appearance of victims sacrificed for the purpose. The oracles of Zeus
+were comparatively few. The office of revealing the divine will to man
+devolved usually upon Apollo, who had twenty-two oracles in European and
+Asiatic Greece.
+
+=32.= Of these the most celebrated was at Delphi, in Phocis, where was a
+temple of Apollo containing his golden statue and an ever-burning fire
+of fir-wood. In the center of the temple was a crevice in the ground,
+whence arose a peculiarly intoxicating vapor. When the oracle was to
+be consulted, the Pythia, or priestess, took her seat upon the sacred
+tripod over this opening; and when bewildered or inspired by the vapor,
+which was supposed to be the breath of the god, she uttered a response
+in hexameter verses. It was often so obscure,[37] that it required more
+wit to discern the meaning of the oracle than to determine the best
+course of conduct without its aid. But so great was the reputation of the
+Delphic shrine, that not only Greeks, but Lydians, Phrygians, and Romans
+sent solemn embassies to consult it concerning their most important
+undertakings.
+
+=33.= What Europe has been to the rest of the world, Greece was to
+Europe. The same peculiarities of coast and climate which made Europe the
+best adapted to civilization of all the continents, long made Greece its
+most highly civilized portion. But as Europe had her northern barbarians,
+always pressing upon the great mountain barrier of the Pyrenees, Alps,
+and Carpathians, sometimes bursting their limits and overrunning the more
+civilized but weaker nations to the southward, so Greece suffered, toward
+the close of the Heroic Age, from the incursions of the Illyrians on her
+north-western frontier. The time of this movement was fixed by Greek
+historians at sixty years after the fall of Troy, or, in our reckoning,
+B. C. 1124.
+
+Though the Illyrians did not enter central or southern Greece, their
+southward movement produced a general change among the tribes of the
+peninsula. The Thessalians, who had previously been settled on the
+western coast of Epirus, now crossed the Pindus mountains, and cleared
+for themselves a place in the fertile basin of the Pene´us, hitherto
+occupied by the Bœotians. The Bœotians, thus dispossessed of their
+ancient seats, moved southward, across Mounts O´thrys and Œta, to the
+vale of the Cephissus, whence they drove the Cadmians and Minyæ. These
+tribes were scattered through Attica and the Peloponnesus. The Dorians,
+moving from the northward, occupied the narrow valley between Œta and
+Parnassus, which thus became _Doris_; while the Dryo´pians, earlier
+inhabitants of this region, took refuge in Eubœa and the islands of the
+Ægean.
+
+=34.= B. C. 1104. Twenty year’s later, a still more important movement
+took place. The Dorians, cramped by the narrow mountain limits of their
+abode, united with their western neighbors, the Ætolians, to invade
+the Peloponnesus. It is said that they were conducted by Tem´enus,
+Cresphontes, and Ar´istode´mus, in pursuance of the claims of their great
+ancestor, Hercules, who had been expelled from the southern peninsula a
+hundred years before. The Dorian migration is therefore often called the
+Return of the Heraclidæ. Aristodemus was killed by lightning when about
+to cross the Corinthian Gulf. His brothers were completely victorious
+over the king of the Achæans, then the most powerful monarch in the
+Peloponnesus, and proceeded to divide the peninsula between themselves
+and their allies. The Ætolians received Elis, on the western coast; the
+rest of the peninsula, except its northern border on the Corinthian
+Gulf, remained to the Dorians, who continued for five centuries to be
+the dominant race in Greece. The Heraclid princes then divided the
+various crowns by lot. That of Argos fell to Temenus; that of Messenia,
+to Cresphontes; and that of Sparta, to Eurysthenes and Procles, the twin
+sons of Aristodemus.
+
+=35.= The conquered Achæans were forced either to emigrate to Asia
+and Italy, or to content themselves with the northern coast of their
+peninsula, from which they expelled its Ionian inhabitants, and gave it
+their own name, Achaia. The Ionians, after resting a few years in Attica,
+whose people were their kinsmen, sought more space in the Cyclades, in
+Chios and Samos, or on the neighboring coasts of Asia Minor. In the
+fertile region between the Hermus and Mæander, and on the islands, twelve
+Ionian cities[38] sprang up, and became rich and flourishing states.
+Though independent of each other in government, they were united in the
+worship of Posidon at one common temple, the Panio´nium, which crowned
+the headland of Mycale.
+
+=36.= The Æolians had already been driven from their ancient home in
+central Greece, and had found refuge in Lesbos and the north-western
+coast of Asia Minor, between the Hermus and the Hellespont. They, also,
+formed twelve independent cities, but Mytile´ne, on the isle of Lesbos,
+was considered the metropolis.
+
+=37.= The Dorians, extending their migrations beyond the conquered
+peninsula, took possession of the south-western coast of Asia Minor,
+with the islands of Cos and Rhodes. Their six cities—sometimes called
+the Doric Hexapolis—were Cni´dus and Halicarnassus, on the mainland;
+Ial´yssus, Cami´rus, and Lindus, on the isle of Rhodes; and Cos, on the
+island of its own name. Like the Ionians, they worshiped at a common
+sanctuary, the temple of the Triopian Apollo.
+
+
+RECAPITULATION.
+
+    Greece was first occupied by the Pelasgi, but its ancient name
+    is derived from the Hellenes, who early became the predominant
+    race. Many arts were introduced by foreigners, among whom
+    Cecrops and Danans of Egypt, Pelops of Phrygia, and Cadmus of
+    Phœnicia, are most famous in tradition. The Heroic Age was
+    illustrated by the achievements of sons of the gods, the last
+    and greatest of their works being a ten years’ siege of Troy.
+    Greece was governed at this period by many absolute monarchs:
+    kings and nobles, as well as people, led simple and industrious
+    lives. Not only tillage, weaving, and the manufacture of
+    metals, but architecture, sculpture, music, and poetry were
+    cultivated to a high degree. Greek religion was the most
+    refined and beautiful form of Nature-worship. Six gods and six
+    goddesses constituted the Supreme Council of Olympus, and a
+    multitude of inferior divinities peopled the mountains, woods,
+    and waters. Conscience was personified in Nemesis and the
+    Erinnyes. Rites of atonement for sin, ecstatic celebrations,
+    and ascetic brotherhoods were adopted by the Greeks from
+    foreign nations. Of many oracles, the most celebrated was that
+    of Apollo, at Delphi. The Heroic Age ended with a general
+    migration of the tribes of Greece, which resulted in the
+    settlement of the Dorians in the Peloponnesus, and the planting
+    of many Ionian and Æolian colonies on the shores of Asia Minor.
+
+
+SECOND PERIOD. B. C. 1100-500.
+
+=38.= The Heroic Age had ended with a general migration among the tribes
+of Greece, which for a time interrupted their improvement of manners. But
+Grecian liberty arose out of the ruins of the Heroic Age; and instead of
+absolute monarchies, various forms of free government were established in
+the several states. A state, indeed, was nothing more than a city with a
+small portion of land surrounding it. Except in Attica, no city at this
+time had control over any other town.
+
+=39.= All the Greeks—though existing under a multitude of governments,
+and divided by rivalries and jealousies—considered themselves as children
+of one ancestor, Hellen, and gave the common name of _barbarians_, or
+_babblers_, to all other nations. The poems of Homer, which were chanted
+at the public festivals and repeated at every hearth-stone, described
+all the Greeks as united against a common foe, and made the feeling of
+brotherhood stronger than any occasional animosity. Beside the community
+of blood, language, and national history, the Greeks were strongly bound
+together by their equal interest in the oracles and the celebration of
+religious rites, and their participation in the great national festivals.
+
+[Sidenote: B. C. 884.]
+
+=40.= THE GAMES. Of these the oldest and most celebrated were the Olympic
+Games. The date of their foundation is lost among the fables of the
+Heroic Age, but it is certain that these athletic contests were the
+favorite diversion of heroes in those primitive times. They were revived
+and invested with new importance in the time of Iph´itus, king of Elis,
+and Lycur´gus, regent of Sparta. In the next century their celebration,
+once in four years, began to afford the Greek measurement of time.
+
+The first Olympiad was B. C. 776-772. The scene of the festival was
+upon the banks of the Alpheus, in Elis, near the ancient temple of the
+Olympian Zeus. During the month of the celebration wars were suspended
+throughout Greece. Deputies appeared from all the Hellenic states, who
+rivaled each other in the costliness of their offerings at the temple.
+The games were in honor of Zeus and Hercules. They were open to all
+Greeks, without distinction of wealth or birth; but barbarians, even of
+royal blood, were strictly excluded. They included running, jumping,
+wrestling, boxing, the throwing of quoits and javelins, and races of
+horses and chariots. The only reward of the victor was a crown of wild
+olive; but this was esteemed by every Greek as the highest honor he could
+attain. Its happy wearer was welcomed home with processions and songs
+of triumph; he entered the town through a breach made in the walls, to
+signify that a city possessed of such sons needed no other defense;
+he was thenceforth exempt from all taxes, as one who had conferred
+the highest obligation upon the state; he occupied the chief place
+in all public spectacles; if an Athenian, he ate at the table of the
+magistrates; if a Spartan, he had the privilege in battle of fighting
+near the person of the king.
+
+=41.= Three other periodical festivals, which were at first confined to
+the states where they occurred, were at length thrown open to the whole
+Hellenic race. The Pythian Games, in honor of Apollo, were celebrated on
+the Cirrhæ´an plain, in Phocis, the third year of every Olympiad. They
+included competition in music and poetry as well as in athletic sports,
+and were, next to the Olympic, the most celebrated festival in Greece.
+The Ne´mean and Isthmian Games were celebrated once in two years; the
+former in the valley of Nemea, in Argolis, in honor of Zeus, and the
+latter on the Isthmus of Corinth, in honor of the sea-god, Posidon.
+
+Thus every year was marked by at least one great national festival, and
+every second year by two, reminding the throngs which attended them
+of their common origin, and the distinction between themselves and
+barbarians. Beside keeping alive that athletic training which increased
+the strength of Grecian youth, these yearly assemblies served also the
+purposes of the modern European fairs, of the lecture hall, and, to
+a certain extent, of the printing-press; for booths were erected all
+around the sacred grove, in which the industries of all the Hellenic
+states and colonies found a ready market; while, in the intervals of
+athletic display, poets chanted to the eager throng their hymns and
+ballads; historians related the deeds of foreign and native heroes;
+and philosophers unfolded to all who were wise enough to listen, their
+theories of mind and matter, and the relation of gods to men.
+
+=42.= Another bond of union among the Greeks was found in the
+Amphic´tyones, or voluntary associations of neighboring or kindred
+tribes, usually for the protection of some common temple or sanctuary.
+Such a one had its center at Delos, the religious metropolis of the
+Cyclades; and the three tribes of Dorians, Ionians, and Æolians in
+western Asia Minor had each its federal union on the same principle. But
+the most celebrated and lasting was the Amphictyonic league of twelve
+tribes, which had its semi-annual meetings, in the spring at Delphi, and
+in the autumn at Anthela, near Thermopylæ.
+
+=43.= After the Dorian Conquest, Argos was for several centuries the
+leading power in Greece. In the earliest part of its history, the
+government was a monarchy, like those of the Heroic Age, the kings
+claiming descent from Hercules. But the spirit of freedom having been
+awakened in the people, they gradually took away power from their kings,
+and established a republic, though retaining the name of monarchy. About
+780 B. C., one Phi´don came to the throne, who, having more talent than
+his predecessors, won back all the powers which they had lost, and made
+himself absolute with the now first-used name of “tyrant.” He extended
+the dominion of Argos over the whole Peloponnese, and sent forth colonies
+which rendered the Argive name famous in Crete, Rhodes, Cos, Cnidus,
+and Halicarnassus. His intercourse with Asia led to the first use of
+coined money in Greece, and of a system of weights and measures which is
+supposed to be the same with the Babylonian. After the death of Phidon,
+Argive power rapidly declined. The subject and allied cities threw off
+the oppressive rule which he had exercised, and a new state was now
+gaining power in the Peloponnese which was destined to eclipse all the
+glories of Argos.
+
+
+SPARTA.
+
+=44.= When the Dorians invaded Peloponnesus, the former inhabitants still
+retained their foothold in the country, and for three hundred years their
+fortress of Amy´clæ stood at only two miles distance from the Doric
+capital of Lacedæmon, defying assault. The Lacedæmonians consisted of
+three classes: 1. The Doric conquerors; 2. The subject Achæans of the
+country towns; and, 3. The enslaved Helots, who were bought and sold with
+the soil.
+
+=45.= The government of Sparta was a double monarchy, its two kings being
+descended respectively from Procles and Eurysthenes, the twin sons of
+Aristodemus. They possessed little power in peace, but as generals, in
+these early times, they were absolute in war. They were held in great
+honor as the descendants of Hercules, and thus as connecting links
+between their people and the gods. The Spartan Senate consisted of
+thirty members, each of whom had passed the age of sixty, and had been
+a blameless servant of the state. The popular assembly was of little
+importance, though, as a matter of form, questions of peace or war and
+the election of certain officers were referred to it. At a later time,
+however, this assembly by a free vote chose five Ephors, who had absolute
+power even over the kings and senate, as well as over the people.
+
+=46.= However subservient they might be to kings or senate, the people
+held themselves proudly above the industrious but dependent inhabitants
+of the towns. There was more difference of rank between Spartan and
+Achæan than between the meanest Spartan and his king. The Helots were
+marked for contempt by a garment of sheep-skin and a cap of dog-skin; and
+every year stripes were inflicted upon them for no fault, but that they
+might never forget that they were slaves.
+
+=47.= About 850 B. C., arose Lycurgus, one of the most celebrated of
+ancient law-givers. He was of the royal family of Sparta; and upon the
+death of his brother, King Polydec´tes, he exercised supreme command in
+the name of his infant nephew, Charila´us. His administration was the
+most wise and just that the Spartans had known; but his enemies raised
+a report that he was seeking the crown for himself, and he resolved to
+withdraw from the country until his nephew should be of age.
+
+The Spartans missed the firm and wise government of their regent. The
+young king came to the throne, but disorders were not checked, and a
+party of the better sort sent a message to Lycurgus urging his return.
+He first consulted the oracle at Delphi, and was hailed with the title,
+“Beloved of the gods, and rather a god than a man.” To his prayer that he
+might be enabled to enact good laws, the priestess replied that Apollo
+had heard his request, and promised that the constitution he was about to
+establish should be the best in the world. Those who might envy the power
+and deny the authority of Lycurgus as a man, could not refuse obedience
+to his laws when thus enforced by the god. He effected a great revolution
+in Sparta, with the consent and coöperation of the king himself.
+
+=48.= The laws of Lycurgus lessened the powers of the kings and increased
+those of the people, but their chief end was to secure the continuance of
+the state by making every Spartan a soldier. Modern nations believe that
+governments exist for the people; in Sparta, on the contrary, each person
+existed only for the state. His right to exist was decided upon the
+threshold of life by a council of old men, before whom each newly-born
+infant was presented. If it seemed to promise a vigorous and active life,
+it was accepted as a child of the state, and assigned a nine-thousandth
+part of the Spartan lands; but if weakly and deformed, it was cast into a
+ravine to perish.
+
+At seven years of age every boy so allowed to live was taken from his
+home and subjected to a course of public training. The discipline of his
+body was considered of more importance than the improvement of his mind.
+He endured heat and cold, hunger and fatigue; and beside the gymnastic
+exercises, he was subjected to all the hardships of military service. His
+garment was the same summer and winter; the food given him was too little
+to sustain life, but he was expected to make up the deficiency by hunting
+or stealing. If caught in the latter act, he was severely punished;
+but it was not for the dishonesty, but for the awkwardness of allowing
+himself to be detected. It must be remembered, however, that where there
+was no property there could be no theft in any moral sense. Every thing
+in Sparta was ultimately the property of the state, and every interest
+was subordinate to the training of citizens to dexterity in war.
+
+=49.= Another means of training the Spartan youth to fortitude, was a
+cruel scourging for no offense at the shrine of Artemis, which they
+endured without a sound, although the altar was sprinkled with their
+blood, and some even died under the lash. Those who were educated by such
+inhuman severities, were not likely to become either just or merciful
+toward others. The wretched Helots afforded a never-failing exercise for
+their skill in war. Under the institution called Crypti´a, they were
+frequently attacked and murdered by the select bands of young Spartans,
+who ranged the country by night in quest of military practice. When the
+Helots became more numerous than their masters, so as to be regarded with
+apprehension, these massacres became more frequent and general.
+
+=50.= Spartan discipline did not end with youth. At thirty a man was
+permitted to marry, but he still lived at the barracks and ate at the
+common table. Public affairs were discussed at these tables with a
+freedom which partly repaid the suppression of speech in the assembly.
+The youth were permitted to attend in silence, and thus received their
+political education. The remaining hours of the day were divided by the
+men between gymnastic exercises and the instruction of youth. Not until
+his sixtieth year was a man released from this martial life.
+
+=51.= Spartan girls were subjected to nearly as rigorous a training as
+their brothers. Their exercises consisted of running, wrestling, and
+boxing, and their characters became as warlike as those of men. Like
+other citizens, the Spartan women considered themselves and all that were
+most dear to them as the absolute property of the state.
+
+=52.= That the minds of the Spartans might never be diverted from
+military pursuits, Lycurgus permitted no citizen to engage in
+agriculture, trade, or manufactures, all occupations which could be
+pursued for gain being left in the hands of the subject Achæans. To shut
+out foreign luxuries, he adopted a still more stringent measure. The
+possession of gold or silver was forbidden, and money was made of iron
+rendered worthless by being heated and plunged into vinegar. This bore
+so low a nominal value in proportion to its weight, that the amount of
+one hundred dollars was a load for a pair of oxen. So cumbrous a medium
+of exchange was despised by other nations; the ports of Sparta were
+unvisited by trading ships, and her villages by traveling minstrels or
+merchants; and as Spartans were forbidden to journey in other lands
+without the leave of their magistrates, while, with very rare exceptions,
+no foreigner was permitted to reside in their capital, the selfish
+exclusiveness of the nation seemed complete.
+
+Love of country was limited to Laconia, and never included Hellas. Except
+when Sparta was threatened, they never united with the other Grecian
+states; and, in time of peace, bore more hatred to Athens than to Persia.
+The free, intellectual life of the Athenians was the object of their
+especial disgust; and the philosophy and eloquence which made the glory
+of Athens, were the scorn of the Spartans, who considered it a crime to
+use three words where two could be made to suffice.
+
+=53.= Unlike other cities of Greece, Sparta was never protected by
+walls. The high mountains on the north and west were a safeguard against
+assaults by land, while the rock-bound coasts to the eastward prevented
+invasion by sea. The whole city was a camp, where each man knew his
+hourly duty, and endured more privation in time of peace than in war.
+The laws of Lycurgus were successful in making a race of soldiers,
+narrow-minded, prejudiced, and avaricious; destitute of those finer and
+sweeter traits which belonged to the higher order of Grecian character,
+but brave, hardy, self-sacrificing, and invincible.
+
+=54.= Having completed his legislative work, Lycurgus secured its
+perpetuity by a sacrifice of himself. He declared that it was necessary
+to consult the oracle, and exacted an oath from kings, senators, and
+people that they would obey his laws until his return. He then went to
+Delphi, made offerings to Apollo, and received an assurance that Sparta
+should be the most glorious city in the world so long as she adhered to
+his laws. Having transmitted this message to his countrymen, Lycurgus
+resolved never to return. He is said to have starved himself to death.
+The time and place of his death are unknown. Cirrha, Elis, and the island
+of Crete claimed his tomb, while other accounts declare that his remains
+were brought to Sparta, and that a stroke of lightning gave the seal of
+divinity to his last resting-place.
+
+=55.= Sparta kept her oath five hundred years, and during a great portion
+of that time maintained the first rank among Grecian states. Amyclæ was
+taken a few years after the departure of Lycurgus. From a mere garrison
+in a hostile country, Sparta now became mistress of Laconia, and began
+to make war with her northern neighbors, Argos and Arcadia. The chief
+object of her enmity was Messenia, another Doric kingdom to the westward,
+separated from Sparta by the ridge of Mount Taygetus.
+
+=56.= FIRST MESSENIAN WAR. B. C. 743-724. The Messenians had adopted
+a more liberal policy toward their Achæan subjects than prevailed at
+Sparta, and the jealousy of the two nations had led to frequent mutual
+insults, when, at length, a slight occasion plunged them into open war.
+A distinguished Messenian, who had been crowned at the Olympic Games,
+pastured his cattle by agreement upon the lands of a certain Spartan. But
+the Spartan, seizing the opportunity for a fraud, sold both the cattle
+and the Messenian herdsmen who tended them, and crowned his iniquity
+by murdering the son of the owner, who came to demand the price. The
+unhappy father went to Sparta to demand justice from the kings, but his
+grief was disregarded and his claims unpaid. He then took revenge into
+his own hands, and murdered every Lacedæmonian who came in his way. The
+Spartans called upon the Messenians to surrender their countryman, but
+they refused to give him up, and war broke out.
+
+[Sidenote: B. C. 738.]
+
+[Sidenote: B. C. 730.]
+
+[Sidenote: B. C. 724.]
+
+=57.= For the first four years the Messenians made effectual resistance,
+and their invaders gained nothing; but in the fifth a partial reverse
+compelled them to shut themselves up in the strong fortress of Itho´me.
+The Spartans took a solemn oath never to return to their families until
+they had subdued Messenia. In the thirteenth year, Theopompus, king
+of Sparta, marched against Ithome, and a great battle was fought, in
+which the king of Messenia was slain. Aristodemus was chosen in his
+place, and the war went on. In the eighteenth year, Arcadia and Sicyon
+sent forces to aid the Messenians, while Corinth joined the Spartans. A
+third great battle was fought, in which the invaders were defeated and
+driven in disgrace to their own country. But at this time the oracles
+began to favor the Spartans, while dreams and visions dismayed the soul
+of Aristodemus. He slew himself, and, with his life, success departed
+from the Messenians. Ithome was abandoned, the Spartans razed it to the
+ground, and the Messenians were reduced to slavery.
+
+[Sidenote: B. C. 685-668.]
+
+=58.= For thirty-nine years they endured a galling weight of oppression,
+but at the end of that time a hero of the royal line arose for their
+deliverance. The exploits of Aristom´enes form the chief history of the
+Second Messenian War, though almost the entire Peloponnesus was engaged.
+The Corinthians, as before, fought for Sparta, while the Argives,
+Arcadians, Sicyonians, and Pisatans took part with the Messenians.
+After losing one battle, the Spartans sent to Delphi for advice, and
+received the unwelcome direction to apply to Athens for a leader. The
+Athenians, too, feared to disobey the oracle; but desiring to render no
+real assistance to their rivals, they sent a lame school-master, named
+Tyrtæ´us, to be their general. They found, as usual, that the Pythia was
+not to be outwitted. Tyrtæus reanimated the rude vigor of the Spartans by
+his martial songs, and it is to these that their final success is mainly
+attributed.
+
+[Sidenote: B. C. 683.]
+
+=59.= The Spartans were slow in regaining their former ascendency. In the
+battle of Stenycle´rus they were defeated with great loss, and pursued by
+Aristomenes to the very summit of the mountains. In the third year the
+Messenians suffered a signal defeat through the treachery of an ally,
+and Aristomenes retired to the fortress of Ira. The Spartans encamped
+around the foot of the hill, and for fourteen years the war was actively
+prosecuted, the Messenian hero often issuing from his castle, and
+ravaging with fire and sword the lands held by the enemy. Three times he
+offered to Zeus Ithomates the sacrifice called Hecatomphonia, in token
+that he had slain a hundred enemies with his own hand.
+
+[Sidenote: B. C. 668.]
+
+=60.= But neither the valor nor the good fortune of the leader availed
+to save his country. Ira was taken by surprise. Aristomenes ended his
+days at Rhodes. His sons led a large number of the exiled Messenians into
+Italy, and settled near Rhegium. A few who remained were admitted to the
+condition of the subject Achæans; but, as before, the mass of the people
+were reduced to serfdom, and remained in that condition three hundred
+years. The conquest of Messenia was followed by a war against Arcadia
+which continued nearly a hundred years. The sole fruit to Sparta was the
+capture of the little city of Tegea.
+
+=61.= From the earliest times Sparta had been the rival of Argos, which
+then ruled the whole eastern coast of the Peloponnesus. Soon after
+Lycurgus, the boundaries of Laconia were extended eastward to the sea,
+and northward beyond the city of Thyr´ea. About B. C. 547, the Argives
+went to war to recover this portion of their former territory. They were
+defeated and their power forever humbled.
+
+[Sidenote: B. C. 547.]
+
+=62.= Sparta was for a time the most powerful state in Greece. Her own
+territories covered the south of the Peloponnesus, and the neighboring
+states were so far subdued that they made no attempt to resist her
+authority. That authority had hitherto been exerted within the narrow
+limits of the Peloponnese, but about this time an embassy from Crœsus,
+king of Lydia, acknowledged her leadership in Greece, and invited her
+to join him in resisting the Persians. At this point began the foreign
+policy of Sparta. Her influence among the Grecian states was always in
+favor of either oligarchy or despotism—against such a government by the
+people as existed in Athens; and the aristocratic party in every city
+looked to Sparta as its natural champion and protector.
+
+
+RECAPITULATION.
+
+    After the Dorian migrations, republics replaced most of the
+    monarchies in Greece. Though divided into many rival states,
+    the Hellenes were one race in origin, language, religion, and
+    customs. The Olympic, Pythian, Nemean, and Isthmian Games
+    promoted civilization by the free interchange of ideas. The
+    Amphictyonic Council, at Delphi and Thermopylæ, united twelve
+    Hellenic tribes for mutual defense. Phidon, king of Argos,
+    founded many colonies, and first introduced weights, measures,
+    and the coinage of money from the East.
+
+    The Spartan government consisted of a double line of Heraclid
+    kings, a senate, and, in later times, five ephors. Lycurgus,
+    as regent, reformed the laws by subjecting every person
+    to military rule, forbidding lucrative employments, and
+    discouraging all intercourse with foreign nations. By two long
+    wars the Spartans enslaved their neighbors, the Messenians;
+    and their power was always opposed to free institutions in the
+    states of Greece, among which Lacedæmon held for some centuries
+    the foremost rank.
+
+
+ATHENS.
+
+=63.= The history of Athens presents an infinitely greater variety of
+character and incident than that of Sparta. Unsurpassed by the Spartans
+in patriotism or valor, the Athenians differed from them in their love
+for rare sculpture, magnificent architecture, and the refined diversions
+of music, poetry, and the drama. The consequence is, that while the
+Spartans won the world’s admiration only by their sacrifice of personal
+interests to those of the state, the Athenians were at once the models
+and the leaders of all civilized nations in the arts which give grace
+and loveliness to life. An Athenian visiting Sparta, and seeing the
+appointments of the public tables, said that he no longer wondered at
+Spartan bravery in battle, for life so nourished could not be worth
+preserving.
+
+[Sidenote: B. C. 1050-752.]
+
+=64.= In the Heroic Age Athens was governed by kings. Theseus subdued the
+country towns of Attica, and made the city the capital of a centralized
+monarchy. Codrus, the last of the kings, fell in resisting the Dorian
+invaders, who had conquered the Peloponnesus and designed to subjugate
+Attica. The invasion was repelled, but the kingdom was not reëstablished.
+The eupatridæ, or nobles, secured the election of an archon for life, who
+was in a certain degree responsible to them for his actions. Though of
+the royal race of Codrus, he had neither the name nor the dignity of a
+king. This succession of archons continued about 300 years.
+
+[Sidenote: B. C. 684.]
+
+=65.= An important change was then made by limiting the term of office to
+ten years. At the expiration of his service, the archon could be tried
+and punished if his conduct was proved to have been unjust. At first the
+election was made, as before, from the descendants of Codrus; but one of
+these being deposed for his cruelty, the office was thrown open to all
+nobles. A third change appointed, instead of a single magistrate, a board
+of nine, who were chosen yearly from among the eupatrids. Nobles alone
+had the right to vote, and for sixty years the government of Athens was a
+pure aristocracy.
+
+[Sidenote: B. C. 621.]
+
+=66.= But the people of Athens, afterward to fill so important a part
+in history, now made themselves heard in a demand for _written laws_,
+which should stand between them and the arbitrary will of their rulers.
+The nobles acceded to the demand, but avenged their injured dignity by
+appointing Draco to prepare the code. This first Athenian law-giver made
+a collection of statutes so severe that they were said to be indeed the
+work of a dragon, and to be written not with ink, but with blood. The
+smallest theft, not less than murder and sacrilege, was punished by
+death, and the life of every citizen was left absolutely at the mercy of
+the ruling order.
+
+[Sidenote: B. C. 620.]
+
+[Sidenote: B. C. 596.]
+
+=67.= Great dissatisfaction arose among the Athenians in consequence
+of these laws, and Cylon, an aspiring young noble, aided by his
+father-in-law, the tyrant of Megara, took advantage of the disturbance
+to seize the Acropolis, with a view to making himself tyrant of Athens.
+The archons quelled this rash rebellion, but in so doing they themselves
+incurred the guilt of sacrilege, for the criminals were put to death at
+the very altar of the Eumenides.[39] While the people were thrown into a
+tumult of superstitious fear, a plague broke out, which was believed to
+be a judgment of the gods. The Delphic oracle being invoked, commanded
+that Athens should be purified by priestly rites. Epimen´ides, a sage and
+seer, who was reputed to have great insight into the healing powers of
+Nature, was brought from Crete, and by his sacrifices and intercessions
+the plague was believed to be arrested. The archons, however, saw a cause
+of their recent danger, deeper than the transient outbreak, and they
+appointed Solon, the wisest of their number, to frame a new code of laws.
+
+=68.= The condition of Attica demanded immediate remedies. The three
+factions, consisting of the wealthy nobles of the Athenian _Plain_,
+the merchants of the _Shore_, and the poor peasantry of the Attic
+_Mountains_, were opposed to each other by the most bitter enmities.
+Some of the latter in their need had been compelled to borrow money, at
+exorbitant interest, from the nobles, and being unable to pay, had become
+the slaves of their creditors.
+
+[Sidenote: B. C. 594.]
+
+=69.= Solon, though a noble, had been forced by the ruin of his fortune
+to engage in commerce, choosing this means of support, however, with a
+view to the improvement of his mind by observation of foreign lands.
+While he was exchanging his Attic oil and honey for Egyptian millet, at
+Naucratis, he had not failed to study the laws of the Pharaohs, or to
+observe their effects upon the interests and character of the people.
+His wisdom and integrity commanded the confidence of all classes of his
+fellow-citizens, and he was made sole archon for life, with unlimited
+power to alter the existing state of things.
+
+=70.= His first object was to improve the condition of the poor debtors,
+not merely by alleviating present distress, but by removing its causes.
+To this end he enacted a bankrupt law, canceling all contracts in which
+the land or person of a debtor had been given as security; and to avoid
+such evils in the future, he abolished slavery for debt. The rate of
+interest was abated, and the value of the currency lowered, so that the
+debtor gained about one-fourth by paying in a depreciated medium. Above
+all, provision was made against a recurrence of the same distress, by
+requiring every father to teach his son some mechanical art. If this was
+neglected, the son was freed from all responsibility for supporting his
+father in old age. Foreigners were not allowed to settle in the country,
+unless skilled in some form of industry which they engaged to carry on.
+
+=71.= The chief design of the new constitution was to set up a free
+and moderate government, instead of the oppressive tyranny of the
+nobles. Solon divided the people into four classes, according to their
+possessions. The poorest were permitted to vote, but not to hold office.
+The upper three classes alone were subject to direct taxation, which fell
+with greatest weight upon the wealthiest. The code of Draco was repealed.
+Instead of severe punishments, Solon introduced the fear of shame and the
+hope of honor as preventives of crime. Among the rewards for faithful
+citizenship were crowns presented by senate or people; public banquets
+in the hall of state; statues in the Agora or the streets; places of
+honor in the theater or popular assembly. As persons distinguished by
+these various honors were constantly seen by the youth of Athens, their
+ambition was kindled to deserve similar rewards.
+
+=72.= A new legislative Council of Four Hundred was formed, consisting
+of one hundred members from each tribe, to be chosen yearly by a free
+vote in the popular assembly. The source of power was in the assembly of
+all the people, which elected the archons and councilors, accepted or
+rejected the laws proposed by the latter, and judged the former at the
+end of their term of office. Popular courts of law were also instituted,
+to which a criminal might appeal when condemned by another tribunal. The
+Council of the Areopagus continued to be the highest court in the state,
+and was especially charged with the maintenance of religion and morals.
+Originally it included all the nobles, but Solon restricted it to those
+who had worthily discharged the duties of the archonship.
+
+=73.= There were no professional lawyers in Athens, for the knowledge
+and enforcement of the laws were held to be the duty of every citizen.
+In case of popular sedition, every man was to be dishonored and
+disfranchised who took no part on either side. This rule was designed
+to stimulate public spirit, and to supply the want of a regular police
+or military force by the active interference of the citizens. Already
+a large body of wealthy and respectable men kept themselves aloof from
+public affairs, which fell thus into the hands of unscrupulous and
+ambitious plotters.
+
+[Sidenote: B. C. 570.]
+
+=74.= Solon is reckoned the greatest of the Seven Wise Men[40] of Greece,
+and some of his sayings have been the maxims of the best legislators of
+all ages. When asked how injustice could be banished from a republic,
+he replied, “By making _all_ men feel the injustice done to _each_.”
+His new constitution failed, however, to satisfy all classes of his
+fellow-citizens. The nobles blamed him for having gone too far; the
+common people, for having withheld too much. He himself admitted that
+his laws were not the best possible, but the best that the people would
+receive. He obtained, however, from the government and people, an oath
+to maintain the constitution ten years; and then, to rid himself of
+perpetual questions and complaints, he departed into foreign lands.
+
+[Sidenote: B. C. 560.]
+
+=75.= On returning to Athens, Solon found that the flames of faction
+had broken out with more fury than ever. The _Plain_ had for its leader
+Lycurgus; the _Shore_, Megacles; and the _Mountain_, Pisis´tratus, a
+kinsman of Solon. The latter was idolized by the people for his personal
+beauty, his military fame, his persuasive eloquence, and his unbounded
+generosity. But beneath many real virtues he concealed an insatiable
+ambition, which could not rest short of supremacy in the state. When his
+plans were ready for execution, he appeared one day in the market-place
+bleeding with self-inflicted wounds, which he assured the people he had
+received in defense of their rights, from the hands of his and their
+enemies, the factious nobles. The people, in their grief and indignation,
+voted him a guard of fifty clubmen. Solon saw the danger that lurked in
+this measure, but his earnest remonstrances were unheeded.
+
+Pisistratus did not limit himself to the fifty men allotted him, but
+raised a much larger force, with which he seized the Acropolis and
+made himself master of the city. Notwithstanding his resistance to the
+usurpation, Solon was treated with great deference by his cousin, who
+constantly asked his counsel in the administration of affairs. But the
+aged law-giver did not long survive the freedom of Athens. After his
+death his ashes were scattered, as he had directed, around the island of
+Salamis, which in his youth he had won for the Athenians.
+
+[Sidenote: B. C. 560-554.]
+
+=76.= THE FIRST TYRANNY OF PISISTRATUS was not of long duration. For six
+years he had maintained the laws of Solon, when the two factions of the
+Plain and the Shore combined against him, and he was driven from the
+city. An incident which occurred during his first reign had an important
+bearing on the later history of Greece. A noble named Milti´ades, of
+the highest birth in Athens, was sitting one day before his door, when
+he saw strangers passing whom he knew to be foreigners by their spears
+and peculiar garments. With true Athenian hospitality, he invited them
+to enjoy the comforts of his house, and was rewarded by a singular
+disclosure.
+
+They were natives of the Thracian Chersonesus—that narrow tongue of
+land which lies along the north shore of the Hellespont—and had been
+to consult the oracle at Delphi concerning the war in which their
+countrymen were now engaged. The priestess had directed them to ask the
+first man who should offer them hospitality after leaving the temple,
+to found a colony in the Chersonesus. They had passed through Phocis
+and Bœotia without receiving an invitation, and they now hailed their
+host as the person described by the oracle, and entreated him to
+come to their assistance. Miltiades and his family were regarded with
+especial enmity by Pisistratus, and were discontented under his rule. He
+accepted the invitation of his guests, collected a party of the similarly
+affected among his fellow-citizens, and with them planted an independent
+principality on the Hellespont. It was his nephew who commanded at
+Marathon.[41]
+
+[Sidenote: B. C. 548, 547.]
+
+[Sidenote: B. C. 537.]
+
+=77.= SECOND TYRANNY. Within six years from the expulsion of Pisistratus,
+his rivals quarreled between themselves, and Megacles, the leader of the
+Shore, invited him to return and resume the sovereignty. But Athens could
+not yet remain at peace. In a short time Pisistratus offended Megacles,
+who had brought him back, and who again united with Lycurgus to expel
+him. This time the tyrant was ten years in exile, but he was constantly
+engaged in raising men and money in the different states of Greece. He
+landed at length with a powerful army at Marathon, and, joined by many
+friends, advanced toward the city. He had pitched his tent near the
+temple of Athena before his enemies had mustered any force to oppose him,
+and their hastily gathered troops were then signally defeated. The people
+willingly changed masters, and Pisistratus became for the third time
+supreme ruler of Athens.
+
+[Sidenote: B. C. 537-527.]
+
+=78.= THIRD TYRANNY. He now established his government upon firmer
+foundations, and the people forgot its arbitrary character in the
+liberality and justice which marked his administration. He maintained all
+the laws of Solon, and in his own person set the example of strict and
+constant obedience. He took care to fill the highest offices with his
+own kinsmen, but the wealth which he accumulated was at the service of
+all who needed assistance. His library, the earliest in Greece, and his
+beautiful gardens on the Ilissus, were thrown freely open to the public.
+He first caused the poems of Homer to be collected and arranged, that
+they might be chanted by the rhapsodists at the greater Panathenæ´a,[42]
+or twelve days’ festival in honor of Athena. He ministered at once to the
+taste and the necessities of the people, by employing many poor men in
+the construction of magnificent public buildings with which he adorned
+the city. The opinion of Solon was justified, that he was the best of
+tyrants, and possessed no vice save that of ambition.
+
+[Sidenote: B. C. 527.]
+
+[Sidenote: B. C. 527-514.]
+
+=79.= After a reign of seventeen years in all, Pisistratus died at an
+advanced age, and his eldest son, Hippias, succeeded to his power, his
+brother Hippar´chus being so closely associated with him that they were
+frequently mentioned as the Two Tyrants. Their united government was
+carried on in the same mild and liberal spirit that had distinguished
+their father, and their reign was considered a sort of Golden Age in
+Athens. They reduced the tax on produce from a tenth to a twentieth,
+and yet, by a prudent management of resources, continued to add
+embellishments to the city.
+
+Fourteen years had thus passed in peace and prosperity, when Hipparchus
+gave serious offense to a citizen named Harmo´dius, who thereupon united
+with his friend Aristogi´ton in a plot to murder the two tyrants.
+Hipparchus was slain. Hippias saved himself by promptness and presence
+of mind; but from that day his character was changed. His most intimate
+friends had been accused by the conspirators as concerned in the plot,
+and executed. Though the charge was false and made only for revenge, the
+suspicions of Hippias never again slept. The property and lives of the
+citizens were alike sacrificed to his cruel and miserly passions.
+
+[Sidenote: B. C. 510.]
+
+=80.= The faction of the Alemæon´ids, who had been exiled under their
+leader, Megacles, now gained strength for an active demonstration. They
+bribed the Delphic priestess to reiterate in the ears of the Spartans
+that “Athens must be delivered.” These brave but superstitious people
+had a friendship of long standing with the Pisistrat´idæ, but they
+dared not disobey the oracle. An army was sent to invade Attica: it was
+defeated and its leader slain. A second attempt was more successful:
+the Thessalian cavalry which had aided the tyrant was now defeated, and
+Hippias shut himself up in the citadel. His children fell into the hands
+of the Spartans, who released them only on condition that he and all his
+kin should withdraw from Attica within five days. A perpetual decree of
+banishment was passed against the family, and a monument recording their
+offenses was set up in the Acropolis.
+
+=81.= Clisthenes, the head of the Alemæonidæ, now rose into power.
+Though among the highest nobles, he attached himself to the popular
+party, and his measures gave still greater power to the people than the
+laws of Solon had done. Instead of the four tribes, he ordained ten,
+and subdivided each into demes, or districts, each of which had its
+own magistrate and popular assembly. The Senate, or Great Council, was
+increased from 400 to 500 members, fifty from each tribe, and all the
+free inhabitants of Attica were admitted to the privileges of citizens.
+
+To guard against the assumption of power by one man, as in the case of
+Pisistratus, Clisthenes introduced the singular custom of _ostracism_,
+by which any citizen could be banished without accusation, trial, or
+defense. If the Senate and Assembly decided that this extreme measure
+was required for the safety of the state, each citizen wrote upon a tile
+or oyster-shell the name of the person whom he wished to banish. If
+the name of any one person was found upon six thousand ballots, he was
+required to withdraw from the city within ten days. The term of his exile
+was at first ten years, but it was afterward reduced to five.
+
+=82.= Isag´oras, leader of the nobles, disgusted by the rise of his
+rival, called again upon the Spartans to interfere in Athenian affairs.
+Cleom´enes, king of Sparta, advanced upon Athens, and demanded the
+expulsion of Clisthenes and all his family, as accursed for the sacrilege
+committed, nearly a hundred years before, in the murder of Cylon.
+Clisthenes retired, and Cleomenes proceeded with his friend Isagoras to
+expel seven hundred families, dissolve the Senate, and revolutionize the
+city. But the people rose against this usurpation, besieged Isagoras
+and his Spartans in the citadel, and only accepted their surrender on
+condition of their withdrawing from Attica. Clisthenes was recalled and
+his institutions restored.
+
+[Sidenote: B. C. 507.]
+
+=83.= Cleomenes had been stirring up Greece to aid his vengeance against
+Athens. He advanced with a considerable army and seized the city of
+Eleusis, while the Bœotians ravaged the western, and the Chalcidians
+from Eubœa the eastern borders of Attica. Undismayed by this threefold
+invasion, the Athenians marched first against Cleomenes; but the
+irrational conduct of the Spartan had disgusted his allies and defeated
+his designs before a battle could take place. The Athenians turned upon
+the Bœotians and defeated them with great slaughter; then pressed on
+without delay, crossed the channel which divided them from Eubœa, and
+gained an equally decisive victory over the Chalcidians.
+
+Hippias now covered his old age with infamy, by going over to the king
+of Persia and exerting all his eloquence in directing the power of the
+empire against his native city. The Athenians sent to Artaphernes,
+begging him not to place confidence in one who had been banished only for
+his crimes. “If you wish for peace, recall Hippias,” was the peremptory
+reply.
+
+
+GRECIAN COLONIES.
+
+=84.= The history of the other continental states is more or less
+involved in that of Sparta and Athens; but before entering upon the
+Persian wars, we will take a rapid survey of those foreign settlements
+which afforded an outlet for the enterprise and the crowded population
+of the Hellenic peninsula. In very early times, colonies were led forth
+from Greece by leaders who were afterward worshiped as heroes in the
+states they founded. Fire, the emblem of civilization, was carried from
+the _prytaneum_ of the mother city, and placed upon the new hearth-stone
+of the colony. The Agora, the Acropolis, the temples, and the peculiar
+worship of the older city were imitated in the new. The colonists bore
+part in the religious festivals of the metropolis by delegates and
+offerings, and it was considered sacrilege to bear arms against the
+parent state.
+
+=85.= There was, however, a great difference in the relations of the
+several colonies with the states from which they sprang. The Æolian,
+Ionian, and Dorian settlements in Asia, and the Achæan in Italy, were
+independent states. Commerce, literature, and the arts flourished at
+an earlier period on the eastern side of the Ægean than in the cities
+of Greece. Homer, the father of Greek poetry, was an Ionian. Alcæ´us
+and Sappho, the greatest of Greek poetesses, were natives of Lesbos.
+Ana´creon was an Ionian of Teos; and four of the Seven Wise Men of Greece
+lived in the Asiatic colonies.
+
+[Illustration: Coin of Ephesus, enlarged one-half.]
+
+=86.= _Miletus_ was for two centuries not only the chief of the Asiatic
+colonies, but the first commercial city in all Hellas. Her sailors
+penetrated to the most distant corners of the Mediterranean and its
+inlets, and eighty colonies were founded to protect and enlarge her
+commerce. _Ephesus_ succeeded Miletus as chief of the Ionian cities. Its
+commerce was rather by land than sea; and instead of planting distant
+colonies, it extended its territory on the land at the expense of its
+Lydian neighbors. _Phocæa_, the most northerly of the Ionic cities,
+possessed a powerful navy, and its ships were known on the distant coasts
+of Gaul and Spain. The beautiful city of Massilia (now Marseilles) owed
+to them its origin.
+
+=87.= The first Greek colony in Italy was at _Cumæ_, near the modern
+Naples, which sprang from it. It is said to have been founded about
+1050 B. C., and continued five centuries the most flourishing city in
+Campania. _Syb´aris_ and _Croto´na_ were Achæan colonies upon the Gulf
+of Taren´tum. Several native tribes became their subjects, and their
+dominions extended from sea to sea across the peninsula of Calabria. The
+Crotonians were early celebrated for the skill of their physicians, and
+for the number of their athletes who won prizes at the Olympic Games. The
+Sybarites were noted for their wealth, luxury, and effeminacy. In public
+festivals they mustered 5,000 horsemen fully equipped, while Athens could
+only show 1,200 even for the grand Panathenæa.
+
+The fall of Sybaris, B. C. 510, was occasioned by war with the sister but
+now rival city Crotona. The popular party had supplanted an oligarchy
+in Sybaris, and the exiled citizens had taken refuge in Crotona. The
+Sybarites demanded their rendition. The Crotonians trembled, for they
+had to choose between two great perils: they must incur either the wrath
+of the gods by betraying suppliants, or the vengeance of the Sybarites,
+whose army was supposed to number 300,000 men. Pythagoras urged them to
+adopt the more generous alternative, and his disciple, Milo, the most
+celebrated athlete of his time, became their general. In a battle on the
+Trais the Crotonians were victorious. They became masters of Sybaris,
+and determined to destroy it so thoroughly that it should never again be
+inhabited. For this purpose they turned the course of the river Crathis,
+so that it overflowed the city and buried its ruins in mud and sand. To
+this day a wall can be seen in the bed of the river when the water is
+low, the only monument of the ancient grandeur of Sybaris.
+
+=88.= The people of _Locri_ were the first of the Greeks who possessed a
+body of written laws. The ordinances of Zaleucus, a shepherd whom they
+made their legislator by the command of the Delphic oracle, were forty
+years earlier than those of Draco, which they resembled in the severity
+of their penalties. The Locrians, however, held them in so high esteem,
+that if any man wished to propose a new law or repeal an old one, he
+appeared in the public assembly with a rope around his neck, which was
+immediately tightened if he failed to convince his fellow-citizens of the
+wisdom of his suggestions.
+
+=89.= _Rhegium_, on the Sicilian Strait, was founded by the Chalcidians
+of Eubœa, but greatly increased by fugitives from the Spartans during the
+first and second Messenian wars. The straits and the opposite town in
+Sicily, formerly called Zan´cle, received a new name from these exiled
+people. _Taren´tum_ was a Spartan colony founded about 708 B. C. Its
+harbor was the best and safest in the Tarentine Gulf, and after the fall
+of Sybaris it became the most flourishing city in Magna Græcia. Though
+its soil was less fertile than that of other colonies, its pastures
+afforded the finest wool in all Italy. Tarentine horses were in great
+favor among the Greeks; and its shores supplied such a profusion of the
+shell-fish used for coloring, that “Tarentine purple” was second only to
+the Tyrian. So extensive were the manufactories of this dye, that great
+mounds may even yet be seen near the ancient harbor, composed wholly of
+broken shells of the _murex_.
+
+=90.= The prosperity of Magna Græcia declined after the close of the
+sixth century B. C., when the warlike Samnites and Lucanians began to
+press southward from their homes in central Italy. The Greek colonies
+gradually lost their inland possessions, and became limited to mere
+trading settlements on the coast.
+
+=91.= _Massilia_, in Gaul, has already been mentioned as a colony of the
+Ionic Phocæans. It exerted a controlling influence upon the Celtic tribes
+by which it was surrounded, and who derived from it the benefits of Greek
+letters and civilization. A Massiliot mariner, Pytheas, navigated the
+Atlantic and explored the western coasts of Europe, as far, at least,
+as Great Britain. Five colonies on the Spanish coast were founded by
+Massilia.
+
+=92.= The fertile island of Sicily early attracted the attention of
+the Greeks. The Carthaginians already occupied the western side of the
+island, but for two and a half centuries the commercial settlements
+of either people flourished side by side without collision. Twelve
+flourishing Greek cities sprang up within 150 years, among which
+_Syracuse_, on the eastern, and _Agrigentum_, on the southern coast, were
+the most important. Syracuse, the earliest, except Naxos, of the Sicilian
+colonies, was founded by Corinthians, B. C. 734. Its position made it
+the door to the whole island, and in Roman times it was the capital of
+the province. In its greatest prosperity it contained half a million of
+inhabitants, and its walls were twenty-two miles in extent. Agrigentum,
+though of later origin (B. C. 582), grew so fast that it outstripped its
+older neighbors. The poet Pindar called it the fairest of mortal cities,
+and its public buildings were among the most magnificent in the ancient
+world.
+
+=93.= AFRICAN COLONIES. Greek colonization was at first confined to the
+northern shores of the Mediterranean, Egypt and Carthage dividing between
+them the southern. But the policy of Psammetichus, and, after him, of
+Amasis, favored the Greeks, who were thenceforth permitted to settle at
+Naucratis, and enjoy there a monopoly of the Mediterranean commerce of
+Egypt. Twenty years after the first establishment at Naucratis, _Cyrene_
+was founded by the people of Thera, a Spartan colony on the Ægean. Unlike
+most Greek colonies, Cyrene was governed by kings during the first two
+centuries of its existence.
+
+=94.= The peninsula of Chalcid´ice, in Macedonia, was covered with the
+settlements of colonists from Chalcis and Eretria, from the former of
+which it derived its name. _Potidæ´a_, on the same coast, was planted
+by Corinthians. _Byzantium_ was founded by Megarians, on the strait
+which connects the Propontis with the Euxine. Few cities could boast
+so splendid a position; but the power of the Megarian colony bore
+little proportion to what it was afterward to attain as the capital of
+Constantine and the mistress of the world. The most northerly Grecian
+settlement was _Istria_, founded by Milesians near the mouth of the
+Danube.
+
+
+RECAPITULATION.
+
+    Codrus, the last king of Athens, was succeeded during three
+    centuries by archons for life, chosen from his family. Seven
+    archons afterward reigned successively ten years each, and the
+    government was then intrusted to a commission of nine, annually
+    elected. The people demanding written laws, Draco prepared
+    a code of inhuman severity. A more moderate constitution was
+    framed by Solon, one of the Seven Wise Men of Greece; but the
+    contention of the three rival factions of the _Plain_, the
+    _Shore_, and the _Mountain_ soon resulted in the subjection
+    of Athens to the tyranny of Pisistratus. Twice expelled,
+    Pisistratus twice re-established his power, and by his justice
+    and liberal encouragement of all the arts, consoled the people
+    for his unwarranted seizure of the government. His son Hippias
+    was expelled by the Alemæonidæ, with the aid of the Spartans.
+    Clisthenes completed the liberal reforms of Solon, and
+    introduced the singular custom of ostracism. In three attempts
+    to overthrow the free constitution of Athens, the Spartans and
+    their allies were signally defeated.
+
+
+THIRD PERIOD. B. C. 500-338.
+
+=95.= The details of the Ionian Revolt (B. C. 499-494) have been found
+in the History of Persia.[43] Reserving his vengeance for the European
+Greeks who had interfered in the quarrel, Darius sought to console
+the conquered Ionians for the loss of their political independence by
+greater personal freedom. Just laws, equal taxes, peace and good order
+began to restore their prosperity; and when Mardonius, the son-in-law of
+Darius, succeeded Artaphernes in the satrapy, he signalized his reign by
+removing all tyrants and restoring to the cities a republican form of
+government. All this was done to secure their friendship or neutrality in
+his approaching expedition against Greece. That expedition (B. C. 492)
+failed, as we have seen, in its principal object.
+
+[Sidenote: B. C. 491.]
+
+=96.= The next year messengers were sent by Darius to each of the states
+of Greece, demanding earth and water, the customary symbols of obedience.
+None of the island states and few on the continent dared refuse. The
+people of Athens and Sparta returned an answer which could not be
+mistaken. The latter threw the envoys into a well, and the former into a
+pit where the vilest criminals were punished, telling them to get earth
+and water for themselves.
+
+=97.= The youth and ill success of Mardonius led Darius to recall him,
+and place the command of his new expedition against the Greeks in the
+hands of Datis, a Mede, and Artaphernes, his own nephew. In the spring
+of 490 B. C., the great host was drawn up off the coast of Cilicia—a
+fleet of 600 triremes, carrying not less than 100,000 men. They sailed
+westward and ravaged the isle of Naxos, but spared Delos, the reputed
+birth-place of Apollo and Artemis, because the Median Datis recognized
+them as identical with his own national divinities, the sun and moon.
+The fleet then advanced to Eubœa, Eretria being the first object of
+vengeance. Carystus, refusing to join the armament against her neighbors,
+was taken and destroyed. Eretria withstood a siege of six days; but the
+unhappy city was a prey to the same dissensions which constituted the
+fatal weakness of Greece.[44] Two traitors of the oligarchical party
+opened the gates to the barbarians. The place was given up to plunder,
+the temples burnt, and the people enslaved.
+
+=98.= A swift-footed messenger was now dispatched from Athens to Sparta
+imploring aid. The distance was ninety miles, and he reached his
+destination the day after his departure. The Spartans did not refuse
+their assistance, but they declared that religion forbade their marching
+before the full moon, and it was now only the ninth day. The Persians
+were already landed on the coast of Attica, and, guided by Hippias,
+advanced to the plain of Marathon. The Athenian army, posted upon the
+heights, had to consider whether to await their tardy allies or meet
+these overwhelming numbers alone. At the last moment there arrived an
+unexpected reinforcement, which, though small in numbers, raised the
+spirits of the Athenians by the friendliness it expressed. It was the
+entire fighting population of the little town of Platæa, a thousand men
+in all, who came to testify their gratitude for a former service rendered
+by the Athenians.
+
+=99.= All the other generals, who were to have commanded in turn, gave
+up their days to Miltiades, whose genius and experience alike won their
+confidence; but he, fearful of arousing envy, waited until his own
+turn came, and then gave orders for battle. The sacrifices and prayers
+were offered, the trumpets sounded, and, chanting a battle-hymn, the
+eleven thousand Greeks rushed down from the heights where they had been
+encamped. Instead of the usual slow march of the phalanx, they traversed
+the mile or more of level ground which separated them from the Persians
+at a full run, bearing their level spears in a straight, unwavering
+line.[45]
+
+The front rank of Asiatics fell instantly before this unusual assault;
+but the resistance was not less determined. Rushing upon the spears of
+the Greeks, in the attempt to make an opening in the phalanx where their
+short swords and daggers might serve them, the Persians freely sacrificed
+their lives. It was the belief of many on the field that the gigantic
+shade of Theseus, the great Attic hero, might be seen in the ranks. Night
+approached before the desperate conflict was decided. But the Greeks,
+though wearied with the long action, never wavered, and at length the
+shattered remains of the Asiatic host turned and fled.[46]
+
+=100.= The Persians had brought with them a mass of white marble, with
+which they meant to erect upon the field of Marathon a monument of
+their victory. It was carved by Phid´ias into a gigantic statue of
+Nemesis, the impersonation of divine vengeance. From the brazen spoils
+of the Persians was cast that colossal statue of Athena Promachos, whose
+glittering spear and helmet, from the summit of the Athenian citadel,
+could be seen far off at sea beyond the point of Sunium. The armed
+goddess, “First in the Fight,” seemed to be keeping a perpetual guard
+over her beloved city.
+
+[Sidenote: B. C. 489.]
+
+=101.= For a time after the victory at Marathon, Miltiades was the best
+beloved of the Athenians. Even while prince in the Chersonesus, he had
+won their gratitude by annexing Lemnos and Imbros to their dominions. To
+this claim on their regard he now added that of having delivered them
+from their greatest peril, and there was no limit to their confidence.
+When, therefore, he promised them a still more lucrative though less
+glorious enterprise than the recent one against the Persians, they were
+not slow to consent, though the conditions were a fleet of seventy ships
+and a large supply of men and money for his use, of which he was to
+render no account until his return. They were granted, and Miltiades set
+sail for the isle of Paros, which had furnished a trireme to the Persians
+during the recent invasion. The chief city was besieged and on the point
+of being taken, when suddenly, for no sufficient cause, Miltiades burnt
+his fortifications, drew off his fleet, and returned to Athens, having
+no treasures and only disgrace and loss to report as the result of his
+expedition.
+
+[Illustration: Coin of Athens, enlarged three-fourths.]
+
+=102.= The glory of Miltiades was now departed. He was accused by
+Xanthip´pus, a leader of the aristocracy, of having accepted a bribe from
+the Persians to withdraw from Paros. Severely wounded, Miltiades was
+brought into the court upon a couch; and although his brother Tisag´oras
+undertook his defense, the only plea he cared to make was in the two
+words, “Lemnos” and “Marathon.” The offense, if proved, was capital; but
+the people refused to sentence their deliverer to death. They commuted
+his punishment to a fine of fifty talents; but before it was paid he
+expired from his wound.
+
+=103.= The greatest citizen of Athens, after the death of Miltiades, was
+Aristides, called “the Just.” He was of noble birth and belonged to the
+Alcmæonid party, but he was ardently devoted to the interests of the
+people. Stern toward crime, whether in friends or foes, he was yet mild
+toward all persons; and so proverbial were his truth and impartiality,
+that when he held the office of archon the courts of law were deserted,
+all suitors preferring to submit their causes to his arbitration.
+
+=104.= His chief rival was Themis´tocles, a young man of great talents,
+and, perhaps, still greater ambition. At length his opposition rose to
+the pitch of proposing the ostracism, and Aristides was banished. It is
+said that, during the voting, the great archon was requested by a man who
+could not write, to inscribe the name of Aristides on an oyster-shell for
+him. “Has he ever injured you?” Aristides asked. “No,” said the man, “nor
+do I even know him by sight; but it vexes me to hear him always called
+the Just.” Aristides wrote his name on the shell, which was cast into the
+heap. As he left his native city he said, with his usual generosity, “May
+the Athenian people never know a day which shall force them to remember
+Aristides!”
+
+=105.= Themistocles was now without a rival in Athens. His acute mind
+perceived what his countrymen too willingly ignored, that the Persian
+invasions were only checked, not ended. Proud of the victory of Marathon,
+the Athenians believed that the Persians would never again dare to attack
+them. But Ægina was yet powerful, and a fierce enmity had long existed
+between the two states. Their merchants regarded each other as rivals
+in trade, while the free people of Athens hated the oligarchy of Ægina.
+Themistocles resolved to turn this enmity to account, in arming Athens
+against the greater though more distant danger. He persuaded the citizens
+to construct a fleet which should surpass that of Ægina, and to apply
+to that purpose the revenues from the silver mines of Laurium, near the
+extremity of the Attic peninsula.
+
+Two hundred triremes were built and equipped, and a decree was passed
+which required twenty to be added every year. Hitherto Attica had been
+more an agricultural than a maritime state; but Themistocles clearly
+saw that, with so small and sterile a territory, her only lasting power
+must be upon the sea. So strenuous were his exertions, that in the ten
+years that intervened between the first and the second Persian wars, the
+Athenians had trained a large number of seamen, organized their naval
+power, and were ready to be as victorious at Salamis as they had been at
+Marathon.
+
+=106.= In 481 B. C., a Hellenic Congress was held at Corinth. The command
+of the Greek forces, both by land and sea, was assigned to Sparta. An
+appeal for coöperation was sent to the distant colonies in Sicily, as
+well as to Corcyra and Crete. Emissaries were also sent into Asia to
+watch the movements of the Persian army. They were seized at Sardis, and
+would have been put to death, had not Xerxes believed that their reports
+would do more to terrify and weaken than to assist their countrymen. He
+caused them to be led through his innumerable hosts, and to mark their
+splendid equipments, then to be dismissed in safety.
+
+=107.= The most difficult duty of the Congress was to silence
+the quarrels of the several states. Athens, by the entreaties of
+Themistocles, consented to peace and friendship with Ægina, and all the
+delegates formally bound their states to act together as one body. Still
+many elements of disunion remained. Bœotia, with the honorable exceptions
+of Thespiæ and Platæa, sent earth and water to the Persian king. Argos
+was at once weakened and enraged against Sparta by the massacre of 6,000
+of her citizens, who had been burned, by order of Cleomenes, in a temple
+where they had taken refuge. Unwilling to refuse her aid in the common
+danger, she consented to join the league only upon terms which Sparta
+refused to accept.
+
+=108.= Even the gods seemed to waver, and the timid answers of the Pythia
+prevented some states from engaging in the war. The Athenian messengers
+at Delphi received an oracle that would have appalled less steadfast
+minds. “Unhappy men!” cried the Pythia, “leave your houses and the
+ramparts of the city, and fly to the uttermost parts of the earth. Fire
+and keen Ares, compelling the Syrian chariot, shall destroy; towers shall
+be overthrown, and temples destroyed by fire. Lo, now, even now, they
+stand dropping sweat, and their house-tops black with blood, and shaking
+with prophetic awe. Depart, and prepare for ill!”
+
+=109.= The Athenians put on the mourning garb of suppliants, and
+entreated Apollo for a more favorable answer, declaring that they would
+not depart without it, but remain at his altar until they died. The
+second response was still more obscure, but possibly more hopeful.
+“Athena is unable to appease the Olympian Zeus. Again, therefore, I
+speak, and my words are as adamant. All else within the bounds of
+Cecropia and the bosom of the divine Cithæron shall fall and fail you.
+The wooden wall alone Zeus grants to Pallas, a refuge to your children
+and yourselves. Wait not for horse and foot; tarry not the march of the
+mighty army; retreat even though they close upon you. O divine Salamis!
+thou shalt lose the sons of women, whether Demeter scatter or hoard her
+harvest!” Themistocles, who had, perhaps, dictated the response, now
+furnished an apt solution. The “walls of wood,” he said, meant the fleet,
+in which the citizens and their children should take refuge. The last
+sentence threatened woe not to the Athenians, but to their foes, else why
+was Salamis called “divine”?
+
+[Sidenote: B. C. 480.]
+
+=110.= Arriving with his vast army at the head of the Malian Gulf,
+Xerxes sent a spy to ascertain the force sent against him. The messenger
+saw only the Spartan three hundred. They were engaged either in
+gymnastic exercises or in dressing their long hair as if for a festival.
+Demaratus, an exiled king of Sparta, was with the Persian army, and he
+was questioned by the great king as to the meaning of this behavior in
+the face of overwhelming danger. Demaratus replied, “It is manifestly
+their intention, sire, to dispute the pass, for it is the custom of
+the Spartans to adorn themselves on the eve of battle. You are about to
+attack the flower of Grecian valor.” Xerxes could not yet believe that
+such a handful of men meant serious resistance. He waited four days
+to give them time to retreat, but sent a messenger in the interval to
+Leonidas, demanding his arms. “Come and take them!” replied the Spartan.
+
+=111.= BATTLE OF THERMOPYLÆ. On the fifth day the patience of the great
+king was exhausted. He sent a detachment of Medes and Cissians into
+the pass, with orders to bring its defenders alive into his presence.
+The assailants were repulsed with loss. The Immortal Band were then
+sent forward, but with no better success. The next day the contest was
+renewed, with great loss to the Persians and no signs of yielding on the
+part of the Greeks. But treachery now accomplished what force had failed
+to do.[47] A council of war was held among the defenders of the pass,
+and it was resolved to retreat, since defeat was certain. Leonidas did
+not oppose, but rather favored the decision on the part of the other
+generals; he only remarked that it was not permitted to Spartans to fly
+from any foe. He knew, too, that the Delphic oracle had declared that
+either Sparta must fall or a king of the blood of Hercules be sacrificed.
+He believed that he should save at least his hereditary kingdom, if not
+the whole of Greece, by the voluntary devotion of his life.
+
+The Thespians insisted upon sharing the fate of the Spartan three
+hundred. The four hundred Thebans, whose loyalty had been suspected from
+the first, were held as hostages. The remainder of the Greeks hastily
+withdrew before the arrival of the Persians. Thus left alone, the
+Spartans and Thespians went forth to meet the immense army, which was
+now in motion to attack them. The Orientals, when their courage failed,
+were driven into battle by the lash, and thousands were doomed to perish
+before the desperate valor of the Greeks. At length Hydar´nes, with his
+Immortal Band, appeared from behind, and the Spartans drew back to the
+narrowest part of the pass, where they fought to the last breath, and
+were crushed at last by the numbers, rather than slain by the swords of
+the Persians.
+
+=112.= The memory of Leonidas was honored by games celebrated around
+his tomb in Sparta, in which none but his countrymen were allowed to
+have part. A lion of stone was placed, by order of the Amphictyonic
+Council, on the spot where he fell; and other monuments at the same place
+preserved the memory of his brave companions. That of the Three Hundred
+bore these words: “Go, stranger, and tell the Spartans that we obeyed the
+laws, and lie here!”
+
+=113.= Learning the fate of Leonidas and his men, the fleet retired
+southward for the protection of the coast. The Spartans acted with their
+accustomed selfishness, by leaving Athens and the rest of Greece to their
+fate, while they employed their land forces in fortifying the isthmus,
+to bar the entrance of their own peninsula. It was with difficulty that
+Themistocles even persuaded his maritime allies to remain at anchor off
+Salamis, long enough to allow some measures to be taken for the safety of
+the Athenian people.
+
+=114.= ABANDONMENT OF ATHENS. Nor was it easy to persuade the
+Athenians themselves to leave their beloved city to the revengeful
+hands of barbarians. But as no other means remained for averting total
+destruction, Themistocles had recourse, as usual, to a stratagem. The
+serpent sacred to Athena suddenly disappeared from the Acropolis, the
+cakes of honey were left untasted, and the priests announced that the
+goddess herself had abandoned the city, and was ready to conduct her
+chosen warriors to the sea. The people now consented to depart. Women,
+children, and old men were hastily removed to places of greater security,
+while all who could fight betook themselves to the fleet. Only a few
+Athenians, either too poor to meet the expense of removal, or still
+convinced that the “wooden walls” of the oracle meant the citadel,
+remained and perished, after a brave but useless resistance, by the
+swords of the Persians. Beautiful Athens was reduced to a heap of ashes,
+in revenge for the destruction of Sardis, twenty years before.
+
+=115.= The commanders of the fleet now resolved to withdraw from
+Salamis, and station themselves near the isthmus to coöperate with the
+Peloponnesian land forces. The Athenians strongly opposed this retreat,
+which would leave the refuges of their wives and children at the mercy
+of the barbarians. It was midnight, and the council had broken up, when
+Themistocles again sought the ship of Eurybi´ades, and convincing him at
+length of the greater wisdom of his own plan, persuaded him to reassemble
+the council. The leaders were recalled from their ships and a violent
+discussion ensued. The Corinthian, Adimantus, opposed Themistocles not
+only with argument, but with insult. Alluding to the recent destruction
+of Athens, he maintained that one who had no longer a city to represent
+should have no voice in the deliberation.
+
+Themistocles kept his temper and replied with dignity and firmness. He
+showed that the naval advantages of the Greeks in the present war had
+always been in the narrow seas, where the immense numbers of the Persians
+gave them no superiority, while their better discipline and acquaintance
+with the currents and soundings were all in favor of the Greeks. He
+argued that by transferring the war to the Peloponnesus they would only
+attract thither the armies and ships of the Persians; while, by defeating
+them before they could arrive at the isthmus, they would preserve
+southern Greece from invasion. He ended by declaring that, if Salamis
+were abandoned, the Athenians would abandon Greece, and taking their
+wives and children on board their fleet, sail to the coasts of Italy,
+where the oracle had commanded them to found a new city.
+
+=116.= Lest even this argument should not be sufficient, Themistocles had
+recourse to another of his wiles. He retired a moment from the council
+and dispatched a trusty messenger to the Persian fleet, assuring its
+commander that the Greeks, struck with consternation, were preparing to
+flee, and urging him to seize the opportunity, while they were divided
+among themselves, to gain a decisive victory. The Persian admiral knew
+too well the frequent dissensions of the Greeks to doubt the truth of
+the message. He immediately moved his squadrons to cut them off from the
+possibility of retreat.
+
+In the meantime Themistocles was again called from the council by the
+arrival of a messenger. It was his ancient rival, the brave and upright
+Aristides, still in exile through the influence of Themistocles, but
+watchful as ever for the interests of his country. He had crossed from
+Ægina in an open boat to inform the Greeks that they were surrounded by
+the Persians. “At any time,” said the just Athenian, “it would become
+us to forget our private dissensions, and at this time especially, in
+contending only who should most serve his country.” Themistocles led him
+at once to the council. His intelligence was soon confirmed by a Tenian
+deserter, and the leaders were now forced to unite in preparation for
+immediate battle.
+
+[Sidenote: B. C. 480.]
+
+=117.= BATTLE OF SALAMIS. When the sun arose upon the straits of Salamis,
+the Attic shores were seen lined with the glittering ranks of the Persian
+army, drawn up by order of Xerxes to intercept fugitives from the Grecian
+fleet. The king himself, on a throne of precious metals, sat to watch
+the coming contest. His ships were fully three times the number of the
+Greeks, and no serious disaster had yet stayed his progress. The Greeks
+advanced, singing that battle-song which the great poet Æschylus, who
+himself fought on this memorable day, has preserved for us: “On, sons
+of the Greeks! Strike for the freedom of your country! strike for the
+freedom of your children and your wives—for the shrines of your fathers’
+gods, and for the sepulchers of your sires! All, all are now staked upon
+your strife!”
+
+Themistocles held them back until a wind began to blow, which usually
+arose in the morning, causing a heavy swell in the channel. This
+seriously incommoded the cumbrous vessels of the Persians, while the
+light and compact Greek craft easily drove their brazen beaks into the
+sides of the enemy. The Athenians, on the right, soon broke the Phœnician
+line which was opposed to them; and the Spartans, on the left, gained
+victories over the Ionian allies of the Persians. The sea was strewn with
+dead bodies, entangled in the masts and cordage of the ships. Aristides,
+who had been waiting with his command on the coast of Salamis, now
+crossed to the little island of Psyt´tali´a, and put the Persian garrison
+to the sword. Xerxes, from his throne on Mount Ægaleos, helplessly
+watched the confusion and slaughter of his men. The contest lasted until
+evening, when the straits of Salamis were abandoned by the barbarians.
+
+=118.= When morning came, the Greeks were ready to renew the battle. The
+Persians had still a large fleet and a numerous army; and, in the night,
+the Phœnician transports had been joined so as to make a bridge between
+Salamis and the mainland. But this was only a feint to cover the real
+movement. The fleet was already under orders to sail to the Hellespont,
+and the army retired in a few days to Bœotia. Leaving 300,000 men with
+Mardonius to renew the war in the following year, Xerxes hastened into
+Asia. His army was reduced on the way by famine and pestilence, and it
+was but a fragment of the great host which had crossed the Hellespont in
+the spring of 480, that returned in the autumn.
+
+[Sidenote: B. C. 479.]
+
+=119.= As spring opened, Mardonius prepared to renew the war; but first
+he sought to accomplish by diplomacy what he had hitherto failed to do
+by force. Deeply impressed with the valor of the Athenians, he was sure
+that if he could withdraw them from the confederacy, the rest of Greece
+would be an easy prey. To this end he sent Alexander I., king of Macedon,
+his ally, but a former friend of the Athenians, to flatter them with
+promises of favor and solicit their alliance. The Athenians refused him
+an audience until they had time to summon delegates from Sparta. When
+the Spartans had arrived, Alexander delivered his message. The great
+king offered to the Athenians forgiveness of the injuries they had done
+him, the restoration of their country and its extension over neighboring
+territories, the free enjoyment of their own laws, and the means of
+rebuilding all their temples. He urged the Athenians to embrace so
+favorable an offer, for to them alone of all the Greeks was forgiveness
+extended.
+
+=120.= The Athenians replied: “We are not ignorant of the power of the
+Mede, but for the sake of freedom we will resist that power as we can.
+Bear back to Mardonius this our answer: So long as yonder sun continues
+his course, so long we forswear all friendship with Xerxes; so long,
+confiding in the aid of our gods and heroes, whose shrines and altars
+he has burnt, we will struggle against him for revenge. As for you,
+Spartans, knowing our spirit, you should be ashamed to fear our alliance
+with the barbarian. Send your forces into the field without delay. The
+enemy will be upon us when he knows our answer. Let us meet him in Bœotia
+before he proceed to Attica.”
+
+=121.= The Athenians had rightly judged the immediateness of the danger.
+Scarcely was their answer received when the Persian general was in
+motion, and advanced by rapid marches to the borders of Attica. He was
+re-enforced at every halt by northern Greeks, moved either by terror
+of his power or by long-standing jealousies against the members of the
+League. The Attic territory was utterly desolate and Athens a second time
+deserted. Taking possession of that city, Mardonius dispatched a Greek
+messenger to Salamis, repeating his former propositions, which were as
+instantly rejected as before.
+
+The Athenians were a second time homeless, and, for the moment, standing
+alone against the enemies of Greece. The Spartans were engaged in
+some long-continued solemnities—perhaps the funeral of their regent,
+Cleom´brotus—and allowed the Athenian messengers to wait ten days for an
+answer. Not until the indignant envoys had threatened to make terms with
+Mardonius and leave Sparta to her fate, did the ephors bestir themselves,
+but then it was with true Spartan energy and dispatch. Five thousand
+Spartans and 35,000 slaves were sent, under the command of Pausanias,
+the new regent, to whom the ephors added a guard of 5,000 heavy-armed
+Laconians.
+
+=122.= Hearing of the advance of the Spartans, the Persian thought best
+to retreat. He again set fire to Athens, leveled to the ground whatever
+remained of its walls and temples, and retired into Bœotia. Here he
+arranged his camp on a branch of the Asopus, not far from the city of
+Platæa. The Spartans followed, having been joined at the isthmus by the
+Peloponnesian allies, and, at Eleusis, by the Athenians. The Greek forces
+occupied the lower slopes of Mount Cithæron, with the river before them,
+separating them from the Persians.
+
+=123.= BATTLE OF ERYTHRÆ. The battle was opened by the Persian cavalry,
+commanded by Masis´tius, the most illustrious general in the army, except
+Mardonius. His magnificent person, clad in complete scale-armor of gold
+and burnished brass, was conspicuous upon the battle-field; and his
+horsemen, then the most famous in the world for their skill and bravery,
+severely harassed the Megarians, who were posted on the open plain.
+Olym´piodo´rus with a select body of Athenians went to their assistance,
+and Masistius spurred his Nisæan steed across the field to meet him. In
+the sharp combat which followed, the Persian was unhorsed, and as he lay
+along the ground was assailed by a swarm of enemies. The heavy armor,
+which prevented his rising, protected him from their weapons, until, at
+length, an opening in his visor allowed a lance to reach his brain. His
+death decided the fate of the battle.
+
+=124.= After this victory the Greek army moved nearer to Platæa, where
+was a more abundant supply of water and a more convenient ground. It was
+the strongest force which the Persians had yet encountered in Greece,
+numbering, with allies and attendants, 110,000 men. For ten days they
+lay facing each other with no important action. The Persians, however,
+intercepted convoys of provisions, and succeeded in choking up the
+spring which supplied the Greeks with water, while, by their arrows and
+javelins, they prevented their approach to the river. Pausanias then
+resolved to fall back to a level and well-watered meadow still nearer to
+Platæa.
+
+[Sidenote: B. C. 479.]
+
+=125.= BATTLE OF PLATÆA. The Spartans were attacked while on the march,
+and sent immediately to the Athenians for aid. The latter marched to
+their assistance, but were intercepted by the Ionian allies of the
+Persians, and cut off from the intended rescue. Pausanias, thus compelled
+to engage with a small portion of his army, ordered a solemn sacrifice,
+and his men stood awaiting the result, unflinching, though exposed to a
+storm of Persian arrows. The omens were unfavorable, and the sacrifices
+were again and again renewed. At length Pausanias, lifting his eyes
+streaming with tears toward the temple of Hera, besought the goddess that
+if fate forbade the Greeks to conquer, they might, at least, die like
+men. At this moment the sacrifices assumed a more favorable aspect, and
+the order for battle was given.
+
+The Spartan phalanx in one dense mass moved slowly but steadily against
+the Persians. The latter acted with wonderful resolution, seizing the
+pikes of the Spartans or snatching away their shields, while they
+wrestled with them hand to hand. Mardonius himself, at the head of his
+chosen guards, fought in the foremost ranks, and animated the courage of
+his men both by word and example. But he received a mortal wound, and his
+followers, dismayed by his fall, fled in confusion to their camp. Here
+they again made a stand against the Lacedæmonians, who were unskilled
+in attacking fortified places, until the Athenians, who had meanwhile
+conquered their Ionian opponents, came up and completed the victory. They
+scaled the ramparts and effected a breach, through which the remainder of
+the Greeks poured into the camp. The Persians now yielded to the general
+rout. They fled in all directions, but were so fiercely pursued, that,
+except the 40,000 of Artaba´zus, who had already secured their retreat,
+scarcely 3,000 escaped. The victory was complete, and immense treasures
+of gold and silver, besides horses, camels, and rich raiment, remained in
+the hands of the Greeks.
+
+=126.= Mounds were raised over the brave and illustrious dead. Only to
+Aristodemus, the Spartan, who had incurred disgrace by returning alive
+from Thermopylæ, no honors were decreed. The soil of Platæa became a
+second “Holy Land.” Thither every year embassies from the states of
+Greece came to offer sacrifices to Zeus, the deliverer, and every fifth
+year games were celebrated in honor of liberty. The Platæans themselves,
+exempt henceforth from military service, became the guardians of the
+sacred ground, and to attack them was decreed to be sacrilege.
+
+=127.= On the day of the victory of Platæa, a no less important
+advantage was gained by the Greeks at Mycale, in Ionia. Here a large
+land force, under Tigra´nes, had been stationed by Xerxes for the
+protection of the coast, and hither the Persian fleet retired before
+the advance of the Greeks. The Persians drew their ships to land, and
+protected them by intrenchments and strong earth-works. The Greeks,
+finding the sea deserted, approached near enough to make the voice of
+a herald heard, who exhorted the Ionians in the army of Tigranes to
+remember that they, too, had a share in the liberties of Greece. The
+Persians, not understanding the language of the herald, began to distrust
+their allies. They deprived the Samians of their arms, and placed the
+Milesians at a distance from the front to guard the path to the heights
+of Mycale. The Greeks, having landed, drove the Persians from the shore
+to their intrenchments, and the Athenians first became engaged in
+storming the barricades. The native Persians fought fiercely, even after
+their general was slain, and fell at last within their camp. All the
+islands which had given assistance to the Medes were now received into
+the Hellenic League, with solemn pledges never again to desert it.
+
+
+RECAPITULATION.
+
+    Athens incurred the vengeance of the Persian king by aiding a
+    revolt of the Asiatic Greeks. The first invasion of Greece, by
+    Mardonius, failed; a second and larger force, under Datis and
+    Artaphernes, ravaged Naxos and part of Eubœa, but was defeated
+    by Miltiades and 11,000 Greeks, at Marathon. An unsuccessful
+    attempt, upon Paros destroyed the fame of Miltiades, and
+    he died under a charge of having received bribes from the
+    Persians. Aristides succeeded him in popular favor, but was at
+    length exiled through the influence of Themistocles. The latter
+    urged the naval preparations of his countrymen, and Athens then
+    first became a great maritime power. A congress at Corinth,
+    B. C. 481, united the Greek forces under Spartan command. The
+    Delphic oracle promising safety to the Athenians only within
+    walls of wood, they abandoned their city and took refuge on
+    the fleet. A few hundreds of Spartans and Thespians withstood
+    the Persian host at Thermopylæ, until betrayed by a Malian
+    guide. The invaders were totally defeated in a naval combat at
+    Salamis, and Xerxes retired to Persia. Mardonius, failing to
+    end the war by diplomacy, was finally overthrown in the battles
+    of Erythræ and Platæa; and the land and naval forces of the
+    Persians were at the same time destroyed at Mycale, in Asia
+    Minor.
+
+
+GROWTH OF ATHENS.
+
+=128.= Though their immediate danger was past, the Greeks did not suffer
+their enemies to rest. A fleet of fifty vessels was prepared, with the
+intention to rescue every Greek city in Europe or Asia which still felt
+the power of the Persian. Though Athens, as before, furnished more
+ships than all the other states, Pausanias commanded. He first wrested
+Cyprus from the Persians, and then proceeded to Byzantium, which he also
+liberated and occupied as a residence for seven years.
+
+[Sidenote: B. C. 478.]
+
+=129.= SIEGE OF SESTUS. The Athenians resolved to win back the colony
+founded by Miltiades in the Chersonesus. The whole remaining force of the
+Persians made a last stand at Sestus, and endured a siege so obstinate
+that they even consumed the leather of their harness and bedding for
+want of food. They yielded at last, and the natives gladly welcomed back
+the Greeks. Laden with treasures and secure of a well-earned peace,
+the Athenians returned home in triumph. Among their relics, the broken
+fragments and cables of the Hellespontine bridge of Xerxes were long to
+be seen in the temples of Athens.
+
+[Illustration: ATHENS.]
+
+=130.= Notwithstanding her losses, Athens came forth from the Persian
+wars stronger, and with a higher rank among the Grecian states, than she
+had entered them. Her efforts and sacrifices had called forth a power
+which she was scarcely conscious of possessing, and with the consent
+of Sparta, whose constitution illy fitted her for distant enterprises,
+Athens was now recognized as the leader of the Greeks in foreign affairs.
+In the meantime important changes had occurred in her internal policy.
+The power of the great families was broken, and the common people, who
+had borne the brunt of hardship and peril in the war, were recognized as
+an important element in the state. Aristides, though the leader of the
+aristocratic party, proposed and carried an amendment by which all the
+people, without distinction of rank or property, obtained a share in the
+government, the only requisites being intelligence and moral character.
+The archonship, which had hitherto been confined to the eupatrids, was
+now thrown open to all classes.
+
+Themistocles was the popular leader. His first care was the rebuilding
+of the walls of Athens, and he provided means by levying contributions
+upon those islands which had given aid to the Persians. The jealous
+opposition of the Spartans was overcome by gold and management. To
+accommodate the greatly increased navy, he improved the port of Piræus
+and protected it by strong walls. He hoped, by building up the naval
+power of Athens, to place her at the head of a great maritime empire,
+comprising the islands and Asiatic coasts of the Ægean, thus eclipsing
+the Spartan supremacy on the Grecian mainland.
+
+=131.= Pausanias, now commanding at Byzantium, had lost all his Spartan
+virtue in the pride of conquest and the luxury of wealth. After the
+victory at Platæa, he had engraven on the golden tripod dedicated
+to Apollo by all the Greeks, an inscription in which he claimed for
+himself the exclusive glory. His government, justly offended, caused
+this inscription to be replaced by another, naming only the confederate
+cities, and omitting all mention of Pausanias. Both the pride and the
+talents of the Spartan commander were too great for the private station
+into which he must soon descend; for though so long generalissimo of
+the Greeks, he was not a king in Sparta, but only regent for the son of
+Leonidas. The conversation of his Persian captives, some of whom were
+relatives of the great king, opened brilliant views to the ambition and
+avarice of Pausanias. His own relative, Demara´tus, had exchanged the
+austere life of a Spartan for all the luxury of an Oriental palace, with
+the government of three Æolian cities. The greater talents of Pausanias
+would entitle him to yet higher dignities and honors.
+
+In view of these glittering bribes, the victor of Platæa was willing to
+become the betrayer of his country. He released his noble prisoners with
+messages to Xerxes, in which he offered to subject Sparta and the rest
+of Greece to the Persian dominion, on condition of receiving the king’s
+daughter in marriage, with wealth and power suitable to his rank. Xerxes
+welcomed these overtures with delight, and immediately sent commissioners
+to continue the negotiation. Exalted by his new hopes, the pride of
+Pausanias became unbearable. He assumed the dress of a Persian satrap,
+and journeyed into Thrace in true Oriental pomp, with a guard of Persians
+and Egyptians. He insulted the Greek officers and subjected the common
+soldiers to the lash. Even Aristides was rudely repulsed when he sought
+to know the reason of this extraordinary conduct.
+
+Reports reached the Spartan government, and Pausanias was recalled. He
+was tried and convicted for various personal and minor offenses, but the
+proof of his treason was thought insufficient to convict him. He returned
+to Byzantium without the permission of his government, but was expelled
+by the allies for his shameful conduct. Again recalled to Sparta, he was
+tried and imprisoned, only to escape and renew his intrigues both with
+the Persians and with the Helots at home, to whom he promised freedom
+and the rights of citizenship if they would aid him to overthrow the
+government and make himself tyrant.
+
+[Sidenote: B. C. 471.]
+
+He was caught, at length, in his own snares. A man named Argilius, whom
+he had intrusted with a letter to Artabazus, remembered that none of
+those whom he had seen dispatched on similar errands, had returned.
+He broke the seal and found, together with much treasonable matter,
+directions for his own death as soon as he should arrive at the satrap’s
+court. The letter was laid before the ephors, and the treason being now
+fully proved, preparations were made to arrest Pausanias. He was warned
+and took refuge in the temple of Athena Chalciϫcus. Here he suffered the
+penalty of his crimes. The roof was removed, and his own mother brought
+the first stone to block up the entrance to the temple. When he was known
+to be nearly exhausted by hunger and exposure, he was brought out to die
+in the open air, lest his death should pollute the shrine of the goddess.
+
+=132.= On the first recall of Pausanias, B. C. 477, the allies had
+unanimously placed Aristides at their head. This was the turning-point of
+a peaceful revolution which made Athens, instead of Sparta, the leading
+state in Greece. Cautious still of awakening jealousy, Aristides named,
+not Athens, but the sacred isle of Delos, as the seat of the Hellenic
+League. Here the Congress met, and here was the common treasury, filled
+by the contributions of all the Grecian states, for the defense of
+the Ægean coasts and the furtherance of active operations against the
+Persians. In the assessment of these taxes, Aristides acted with so much
+wisdom and justice, that, though all the treasures of Greece were in
+his power, no word of accusation or complaint was uttered by any of the
+allies.
+
+[Sidenote: B. C. 476.]
+
+=133.= Having thus laid the foundation of Athenian supremacy by his
+moderation, Aristides retired from command, and was succeeded by Cimon,
+the son of Miltiades. This young noble was distinguished by his frank and
+generous manners, as well as by his bravery in war, which had already
+been proved against the Persians. The recovery of his father’s estates
+in the Chersonesus gave him immense wealth, which he used in the most
+liberal manner. He kept open table for men of all ranks, and was followed
+in the streets by a train of servants laden with cloaks, which they gave
+to any needy person whom they met. At the same time he administered to
+the wants of the more sensitive by charities delicately and secretly
+offered. Though doubtless injurious to the spirit of the Athenian people,
+this liberality was gladly accepted, and resulted in unbounded popularity
+to Cimon. His brave and sincere character commended him to the Spartans,
+and of all the Athenians he was probably the most acceptable leader to
+the allies.
+
+=134.= His first expedition was against the Thracian town Ei´on, now
+held by a Persian garrison. The town was reduced by famine, when its
+governor, fearing the displeasure of Xerxes more than death, placed
+himself, his family, and his treasures upon a funeral pile, and perished
+by fire. The place surrendered, and its defenders were sold as slaves.
+Cimon then proceeded to Scyrus, whose people had incurred the vengeance
+of the League by their piratical practices. The pirates were expelled,
+and the place occupied by an Attic colony. As the fear of Asiatic
+invasion subsided, the bond between the allies and their chief relaxed.
+Carystus refused to pay tribute, and Naxos, the most important of the
+Cyclades, openly revolted. Cimon was on the alert. Carystus was subdued,
+and a powerful fleet was led against Naxos. The siege was long and
+obstinate, but it resulted in favor of Athens. The island was reduced
+from an ally to a subject.
+
+[Sidenote: B. C. 466.]
+
+=135.= BATTLE OF THE EURYMEDON. The victorious fleet of Cimon now
+advanced along the southern shores of Asia Minor, and all the Greek
+cities, either encouraged by his presence or overawed by his power,
+seized the opportunity to throw off the yoke of the Persians. His force
+was increased by their accession when he came to the river Eurymedon,
+in Pamphylia, and found a Persian fleet moored near its entrance, and
+a powerful army drawn up upon the banks. Already more numerous than
+the Greeks, they were expecting reinforcements from Cyprus; but Cimon,
+preferring to attack them without delay, sailed up the river and engaged
+their fleet. The Persians fought but feebly, and as they were driven to
+the narrow and shallow portion of the river, they forsook their ships and
+joined the army on the land. Cimon increased his own fleet by two hundred
+of the deserted triremes, beside destroying many.
+
+Thus victorious on the water, the men demanded to be led on shore, where
+the Persian army stood in close array. Fatigued with the sea fight, it
+was hazardous to land in the face of a superior enemy still fresh and
+unworn, but the zeal of the Greeks surmounted all objections. The second
+battle was more closely contested than the first; many noble Athenians
+fell, but victory came at last; the field and the spoils remained to the
+Greeks. To make his victory complete, Cimon proceeded to Cyprus, where
+the Phœnician reinforcements were still detained. These were wholly
+captured or destroyed, and the immense treasure which fell into the hands
+of the victors increased the splendor of Athens. The tide of war had
+now rolled back so powerfully upon Persia, that the coasts of Asiatic
+Greece were free from all danger. No Persian troops came within a day’s
+journey on horseback of the Grecian seas, whose waters were swept clear
+of Persian sails.
+
+=136.= Aristides was now dead, and Themistocles in exile, having been
+ostracised in 471 B. C. Cimon was therefore both the greatest and
+richest of the Athenians; and while his wealth was freely used for the
+adornment of Athens and the pleasure of her citizens, it continually
+added to his power. He planted the market-place with Oriental
+plane-trees; laid out in walks and adorned with groves and fountains
+the Acade´mia, afterward made celebrated by the teachings of Plato;
+he erected beautiful colonnades of marble, where the Athenians long
+loved to assemble for social intercourse; and he caused the dramatic
+entertainments to be celebrated with greater elegance and brilliancy.
+With this increase of wealth, the tastes of the citizens became
+luxurious, and Athens rose from her poverty and secondary rank to be not
+only the most powerful, but the most magnificent of Grecian cities.
+
+=137.= Though of the opposite political party to Themistocles, Cimon
+carried forward that statesman’s great design of exalting by all means
+the naval power of Athens. To this end he yielded to the request of
+the allies, who desired to commute their quotas of ships or men for
+the general defense into a money payment. Other admirals had been less
+accommodating, but Cimon masked a profound policy under his apparent
+good-nature. The forces of the other states became enfeebled by want of
+discipline, while the Athenians were not only enriched by their tribute,
+but strengthened in the hardy drill of the soldier and sailor, which
+Cimon never suffered them to relax.
+
+=138.= The fall of Themistocles was indirectly brought about by that of
+Pausanias. The great Athenian, living in exile, but watchful as ever
+in all that concerned the interests of Greece, had entered so far into
+the intrigues of Pausanias as to become possessed of all his plans. The
+Spartan ephors, finding his letters among the papers of Pausanias, and
+glad of such a pretext against their old enemy, sent them to Athens,
+accusing him of a share in the conspiracy. The party led by Cimon and
+friendly to Sparta was now predominant in Athens, and the people listened
+too readily to these suspicions. A combined force of Spartan and Athenian
+troops was sent forth, with orders to seize Themistocles wherever he
+could be found.
+
+[Sidenote: B. C. 466.]
+
+The exile, after many adventures, took refuge at the court of Persia,
+that power which, more than any man living, he had contributed to
+destroy, but which was ever personally generous toward its foes. The
+three cities, Myus, Lamp´sacus, and Magnesia, were assigned him for his
+support. In the latter city he passed his remaining days in affluence and
+honor. Two accounts have been given of his death. The more probable one
+is, that when Egypt revolted and was aided by Athens (B. C. 449), the
+Persian king called upon Themistocles to make good his promises and begin
+operations against Greece. But the Athenian had only wished to escape
+from his ungrateful countrymen, not to injure them, and he could not help
+to destroy that supremacy of Athens which he had spent the best years
+of his life in building up. Falsehood to the great king seemed to him a
+less heinous crime than treason against his country. He made a solemn
+sacrifice to the gods, took leave of his friends, and ended his days by
+poison.
+
+[Sidenote: B. C. 465.]
+
+[Sidenote: B. C. 464.]
+
+=139.= The Thasians, meanwhile, had a contest with Athens for some gold
+mines in Thrace. Cimon conducted a fleet to Thasos, gained a naval
+victory, and began a three years’ siege of the principal town. The
+Thasians sent to Sparta for help, and that state was preparing to render
+it with great alacrity, when her attention was suddenly absorbed at
+home by unforeseen calamities. An earthquake of unprecedented violence
+first destroyed the city. Great rocks from Mount Taygetus rolled into
+the streets, and multitudes of persons were engulfed or buried beneath
+the ruins of their houses. The shocks were long-continued, and terror
+of the supposed wrath of Heaven was added to the anguish of poverty and
+bereavement. The dreaded vengeance soon appeared in human form; for the
+persecuted Helots, hearing the signal of their deliverance in the stroke
+of doom to Sparta, flocked together from the fields and villages, and
+mingled their revenge with the commotions of Nature.
+
+It was a terrible moment for Sparta; but her king, Archidamus, was true
+to the stern valor of his race. The shocks of the earthquake had hardly
+ceased, when he ordered the trumpets to sound to arms. Even at that
+fearful moment Spartan discipline prevailed. Every man who survived
+hastened to the king, and when the disorderly, servile crowd approached,
+they found a disciplined force ready to resist them. Sparta was saved
+for the moment; the insurgents fled and scattered themselves over the
+country, calling to their standard all who were oppressed. The Messenians
+rose in a mass, seized Ithome, where their never-forgotten hero,
+Aristomenes, had so long withstood the Lacedæmonian arms, fortified it
+anew, and formally declared war against Sparta. The ten years’ conflict
+which followed is known as the Third Messenian War (B. C. 464-455).
+
+In her extremity, Sparta sent to Athens for aid, and the appeal produced
+a violent controversy between the two parties into which that city was
+divided. Cimon favored the Spartans; he had always held up their brave
+and hardy character as a model to his countrymen, and had even sacrificed
+much of his popularity by naming his son Lacedæmonius. When others urged
+that it was well the pride of Sparta should be humbled, and her power for
+mischief curtailed, Cimon exhorted his countrymen not to suffer Greece
+to be maimed by the loss of one of her two great powers, thus depriving
+Athens of her companion. His generous counsel prevailed, and Cimon led a
+strong force against the insurgents, who were now driven from the open
+country and compelled to shut themselves up in the castle of Ithome.
+
+=140.= The influence of Cimon had greatly declined at Athens. The
+democratic party had recovered from its loss in Themistocles, for a
+new leader was arising whose popularity and services to the state were
+destined to eclipse even the great men who had preceded him. This was
+Per´icles, the son of that Xanthippus who had impeached Miltiades. His
+mother was niece of Clisthenes, who is called the second founder of the
+Athenian constitution. Born of an illustrious family, and educated in
+all the opportunities of Athenian camps and schools, Pericles was said
+to have nothing to contend against except his advantages. His beautiful
+face, winning manners, and musical voice reminded the oldest citizens
+of Pisistratus; and the vigilance with which the Athenians guarded
+their liberties, turned the admiration of some into jealousy. Pericles,
+however, made no haste to enter on his public career, but prepared
+himself by long and diligent study for the influence he hoped to attain.
+He sought the wisest teachers, and became skilled in the science of
+government, while he cultivated his gifts in oratory by training in all
+the arts of expression.
+
+Anaxag´oras, the first Greek philosopher who believed in one supreme
+Intelligence, creating and governing the universe, was the especial
+friend and instructor of Pericles, and to his sublime doctrines men
+attributed the elevation and purity of the young statesman’s eloquence.
+Instead of relying solely upon the wisdom of his counsels, like
+Themistocles, or upon his natural gifts, like Pisistratus, Pericles
+chose every word with care, and was the first who committed his orations
+to writing, that he might subject every sentence to the highest polish
+of which it was capable. The Athenian people, the most sensitive,
+perhaps, to beauty of style of any that ever existed, enjoyed with keen
+delight the clear reasoning and brilliant language which characterized
+the discourses of Pericles. Nor was his perfection of detail gained by
+any sacrifice of energy. His public speaking was compared to thunder
+and lightning, and he was said to carry the weapons of Zeus upon his
+tongue. Above all, the sweetness of his temper, and the command which
+philosophy had enabled him to gain over his passions, gave him advantage
+over less disciplined orators. The fiercest debate or the most insulting
+interruptions never disturbed for a moment the cheerful and dignified
+composure of his manner.
+
+=141.= Thasos surrendered B. C. 463; its walls were leveled, its shipping
+transferred to the Athenians, and all its claims upon the Thracian gold
+mines were given up. The people were compelled to pay all their arrears
+of tribute to the Delian treasury, beside engaging to meet their dues
+punctually in future.
+
+[Sidenote: B. C. 461.]
+
+=142.= A second time the Spartans asked the aid of Athens in their
+servile war, and Cimon again led an army to their relief. But the
+superiority of the Athenians in siege operations aroused the envy of the
+Lacedæmonians, even when employed in their defense; and the long siege
+of Ithome afforded time for the rivalries of the two nations to break out
+into open feuds. The Spartans declared that they had no further need of
+the Athenians, and dismissed their troops. Other allies were retained,
+including Ægina, the ancient rival of Athens. The latter, considering
+herself insulted, made an alliance with the Argives and the Aleuads of
+Thessaly against Sparta. The Hellenic treasury was removed from Delos to
+Athens, for safe keeping, it was said, against the needy and rapacious
+hands of the Spartans.
+
+[Illustration: WEST VIEW OF THE ACROPOLIS.
+
+_Pelasgian Walls._ _Erechtheum._ _Athena Promachos._ _Parthenon._ _Walls
+of Cimon._
+
+_Cave of Pan._ _Propylæa._ _Temple of Nike Apteros._]
+
+The popular resentment naturally extended itself to Cimon. The favor with
+which he was regarded in Sparta was now his greatest crime. The Athenians
+had indeed some reason to fear, for the Spartan nobles always maintained
+a party in their city who were supposed to be secretly plotting against
+its free government. However honestly Cimon supported aristocratic
+principles, the people, with equal honesty and greater wisdom, opposed
+him. He was subjected to the ostracism and banished for ten years.
+
+
+RECAPITULATION.
+
+    The power of Athens was increased by the Persian war; and her
+    home government, which had been confined to the nobles, was
+    thrown open to the people. Themistocles rebuilt the walls and
+    improved the harbor. Pausanias, becoming a traitor, died of
+    starvation in the temple of Athena, at Sparta. Athens became
+    the chief of the Hellenic League, whose seat and treasury were
+    at Delos. Cimon, son of Miltiades, in command of the allied
+    forces, captured Eion, cleared Scyros of pirates, subdued
+    rebellions in Carystus and Naxos, and conquered the Persians,
+    both on sea and land, in the battle of the Eurymedon. He
+    beautified Athens by a liberal use of his enormous wealth,
+    and improved the military and naval discipline of his
+    fellow-citizens, at the expense of their allies. Themistocles,
+    exiled through suspicion, took refuge in the Persian dominion,
+    where he died. Sparta suffered a double calamity, in an
+    earthquake and a servile rebellion, known as the Third
+    Messenian War. Her insulting treatment of her Athenian aids
+    destroyed the popularity of Cimon; and Pericles, the most
+    accomplished of the Athenians, rose into power.
+
+
+SUPREMACY OF ATHENS.
+
+=143.= Athens, under the lead of Pericles, now entered upon the most
+brilliant period of her history. A dispute between Megara and Corinth
+involved Athens on the former and Sparta on the latter side, and thus led
+to the First Peloponnesian War (B. C. 460-457). At the same time, a more
+distant enterprise tempted the Athenians. Egypt had now cast off the last
+semblance of obedience to Persia, and hailed a deliverer and sovereign in
+the person of Inarus. In looking about him for allies, Inarus naturally
+sought the aid of those who, at Marathon, had first broken the power of
+the Persians. The Athenians engaged gladly in the war, and sent a fleet
+of two hundred triremes to the Nile. The events of the campaign have been
+recorded in the History of Persia.[48]
+
+[Sidenote: B. C. 457.]
+
+=144.= The war in Greece went on with great vigor. The Athenians were
+defeated at Halæ, but soon after won a naval battle at Cec´ryphali´a,[49]
+which more than retrieved their reputation. Ægina now joined in the
+war, and the Athenians landed upon the island and besieged the city. A
+Peloponnesian army came to the aid of Ægina, while the Corinthians seized
+the opportunity to invade Megaris. With all her forces employed either
+in Egypt or Ægina, they hoped that Athens would be overcome by this
+new attack. But Myron´ides mustered an army of boys and old men exempt
+from service, and marched at once to the assistance of Megara. In the
+battle which ensued, neither party acknowledged itself defeated, but the
+Corinthians withdrew to their capital, while the Athenians held the field
+and erected a trophy. Unable to bear the reproaches of their government,
+the Corinthian army returned after twelve days and raised a monument upon
+the field, claiming that the victory had been theirs. But the Athenians
+now attacked them anew, and inflicted a decisive and disgraceful defeat.
+
+=145.= In the midst of these enterprises abroad, great public works were
+going on in Athens. Cimon had already planned a line of fortifications
+to unite the city with its ports, and the spoils of the Persians, taken
+at the Eurymedon and at Cyprus, had been assigned for the expense. Under
+the direction of Pericles, the building began in earnest. One wall
+was extended to Phalerum, and another to Piræus; but as it was found
+difficult to defend so large an inclosed space, a second wall to Piræus
+was added, at a distance of 550 feet from the first. Between these Long
+Walls a continuous line of dwellings bordered the carriage-road, nearly
+five miles in length, which extended from Athens to its principal harbor.
+
+=146.= The Spartans were still too much absorbed in the siege of Ithome
+to interfere with the great and sudden advancement of Athenian power; but
+a disaster which befell their little ancestral land of Doris, in war with
+the Phocians, withdrew their attention even from their own troubles. An
+army of 1,500 heavy-armed Spartans and 10,000 auxiliaries, sent to the
+relief of the Dorians, drove the Phocians from the town they had taken,
+and secured their future good behavior by a treaty. The retreat of the
+Spartans was now cut off by the Athenian fleet in the Gulf of Corinth and
+the garrison in the Megarid. Their commander, Nicome´des, had, however,
+reasons beyond the necessity of the case for remaining a while in Bœotia.
+He was plotting with the aristocratic party in Athens for the return of
+Cimon, and he also desired to increase the power of Thebes, as a near and
+dangerous rival to the former city.
+
+[Sidenote: B. C. 457.]
+
+The conspiracy becoming known, the Athenians were roused to revenge.
+They raised an army of 14,000 men and marched against Nicomedes, at
+Tan´agra. Both sides fought with equal bravery and skill, and the victory
+was undecided until the Thessalian cavalry deserted to the Spartans.
+The Athenians and their allies still held out for some hours, but when
+the contest ended with the daylight, the victory remained with their
+adversaries. Nicomedes reaped no other fruit from his victory than a safe
+return home, but Thebes gained from it an increase of power over the
+cities of Bœotia.
+
+[Sidenote: B. C. 456.]
+
+=147.= BATTLE OF ŒNO´PHYTA. The Athenians were only spurred to fresh
+exertions. The brave Myronides entered Bœotia two months after the battle
+of Tanagra, and gained at Œnophyta one of the most decisive victories
+ever achieved by Greeks. The walls of Tanagra were leveled with the
+ground. Phocis, Locris, and all Bœotia, except Thebes, were brought
+into alliance with Athens. These alliances were rendered effective by
+the establishment of free governments in all the towns, which, for
+self-preservation, must always range themselves on the side of Athens;
+so that Myronides could boast that he had not only subdued enemies, but
+filled central Greece with garrisons of friends.
+
+[Sidenote: B. C. 455.]
+
+=148.= Soon after the completion of the Long Walls, in 456, the island
+of Ægina submitted at last to Athens. Her shipping was surrendered, her
+walls destroyed, and the life-long rival became a tributary and subject.
+A fleet of fifty Athenian vessels, commanded by Tol´mides, cruised around
+the Peloponnesus; burned Gyth´ium, a port of Sparta; captured Chalcis,
+in Ætolia, which belonged to Corinth, and defeated the Sicyonians on
+their own coast. Returning through the Corinthian Gulf, they captured
+Naupac´tus, in western Locris, and all the cities of Cephallenia.
+
+In the same year, the tenth of its siege, Ithome surrendered to the
+Spartans. So long and brave a defense won the respect even of bitter
+enemies. The Helots were reduced again to slavery, but the Messenians
+were permitted to depart in safety to Naupactus, which Tolmides presented
+them from the fruits of his victories.
+
+=149.= In Egypt, the resistance of the Athenians to the Persians ended
+the same year, but not until after long and desperate adventures. When
+the citadel of Memphis was relieved by a Persian force, the Greeks
+withdrew to Prosopi´tis, an island in the Nile around which their ships
+lay anchored. The Persians following, drained the channel, and thus left
+the ships on dry land. The Egyptian allies yielded, on this loss of their
+most effective force; but the Athenians, after burning the stranded
+vessels, retired into the town of Byblus, resolved to hold out to the
+last. The siege continued eighteen months. At last the Persians marched
+across the dry bed of the channel and took the place by assault. Most of
+the Athenians fell; a few crossed the Libyan desert to Cyrene, and thus
+returned home. A fleet of fifty vessels, which had been sent to their
+relief, came too late, and was defeated by the Persians and Phœnicians.
+
+[Sidenote: B. C. 449.]
+
+=150.= Other enterprises of the Athenians at this time were scarcely more
+successful, and Cimon, who had now been recalled from exile, used all his
+influence in favor of peace. A five years’ truce was made with Sparta in
+451 B. C. The Isle of Cyprus was the next object of Athenian ambition.
+Divided into nine petty states, it seemed to offer an easy conquest;
+and as the Persian king still claimed the sovereignty, the enterprise
+was but a renewal of ancient hostilities. Cimon sailed from Athens with
+a fleet of two hundred vessels; and in spite of the Persian force of
+three hundred ships which guarded the coast of Cyprus, he landed and
+gained possession of many of its towns. While besieging Citium the great
+commander died. By his orders his death was concealed from his men, until
+they had gained another signal victory, both by land and sea, in his
+name. The naval battle occurred off the Cyprian Salamis—a name of good
+omen to the Athenians.
+
+[Sidenote: B. C. 448.]
+
+=151.= A slight incident about this time brought on renewed hostilities
+with Sparta. The city of Delphi, though on Phocian soil, claimed
+independence in the management of the temple and its treasures. The
+inhabitants were of Dorian descent, and were, therefore, closely united
+with the Spartans. Where the interests of Greece were divided, the great
+influence of the oracle was always on the side of the Doric as opposed to
+the Ionic race. The Athenians did not therefore object when their allies,
+the Phocians, seized the Delphian territory and assumed the care of the
+temple. The Spartans instantly undertook what they called a holy war, by
+which they expelled the Phocians and reinstated the Delphians in their
+former privileges. Delphi now declared itself a sovereign state; and to
+reward the Spartans for their intervention, conferred upon them the first
+privilege in consulting the oracle. This decree was inscribed upon a
+brazen wolf erected in the city. The Athenians could not willingly resign
+their share in a power which, through the superstition of the people, was
+often able to bestow victory in war and prosperity in peace. No sooner
+had the Spartans left the sacred city, than Pericles marched in and
+restored the temple to the Phocians. The brazen wolf was now made to tell
+another tale, and award precedence to the Athenians.
+
+=152.= At this signal of war, the exiles from various Bœotian cities,
+who had been driven out by the establishment of democratic governments,
+joined for a concerted movement. They seized Chærone´a, Orchom´enus, and
+other towns, and restored the oligarchic governments which the Athenians
+had overthrown. These changes caused great excitement in Athens. The
+people clamored for immediate war; Pericles strongly opposed it: the
+season was unfavorable, and he considered that the honor of Athens was
+not immediately at stake. But the counsel of Tolmides prevailed, and
+with a thousand young Athenian volunteers, assisted by an army of allies,
+he marched into Bœotia. Chæronea was soon subdued and garrisoned with
+Athenians.
+
+[Sidenote: B. C. 447.]
+
+[Sidenote: B. C. 445.]
+
+Flushed with its speedy victory, the army was returning home, when, in
+the vicinity of Coronæa, it fell into an ambush and suffered a most
+signal and memorable defeat. Tolmides himself, with the flower and pride
+of the Athenian soldiery, was left dead upon the field. A large number of
+prisoners were taken, and to recover these the government had to enter
+into a treaty with the new oligarchies, and withdraw its forces from
+Bœotia. Locris and Phocis lost their free institutions and became allies
+of Sparta. The island of Eubœa threw off the Athenian yoke, and other
+subject islands showed signs of disaffection. At the same time, the five
+years’ truce with Sparta expired, and that state prepared with new zeal
+to avenge its humiliation at Delphi.
+
+=153.= Pericles, whose remembered warnings against the Bœotian war
+only heightened the respect and confidence of the people, now acted
+with energy and promptness. He landed in Eubœa with a sufficient force
+to reduce that island, but had scarcely crossed the channel when he
+learned that the Megarians were in revolt. Aided by allies from Sicyon,
+Epidaurus, and Corinth, they had put all the Athenian garrisons to the
+sword, except a few in the fortress of Nisæa, and all the Peloponnesian
+states had combined to send an army into Attica. To meet this greater
+danger, Pericles returned home. The Peloponnesian army soon appeared,
+under the young Spartan king, Plisto´anax; but instead of the decisive
+operations that were expected, it only plundered the western borders
+of Attica, and retired without striking a blow. Plistoanax and his
+guardian were accused, on their return, of having accepted bribes from
+the Athenians; and as both fled the country, rather than meet the
+prosecution, we may presume that the charge was just. Returning to Eubœa,
+Pericles reduced the island to complete subjection, and established a
+colony at Histiæa.
+
+[Sidenote: B. C. 445.]
+
+=154.= All parties now desired peace. A thirty years’ truce was concluded
+between Athens and Sparta, in which the former submitted to the loss
+of her empire on land. The foothold in Trœzene, the right to levy
+troops in Achaia, the possession of the Megarid, the protectorate of
+free governments in central Greece, all were given up. But the losses
+of the war had fallen most heavily on the party which began it, while
+Pericles stood higher than ever in the esteem of his fellow-citizens.
+Thucyd´ides,[50] a kinsman of Cimon, and his successor as leader of the
+aristocracy, was summoned to the ostracism, and when he rose to make his
+defense he had not a word to say. He was banished, and retired to Sparta,
+B. C. 444.
+
+=155.= Pericles now united all parties, and for the rest of his life held
+supreme control of affairs. The nobles respected him as one of their own
+order; the merchants and alien settlers were enriched by his protection
+of trade; the shippers and sailors, by his attention to maritime affairs;
+artisans and artists, by the public works he was incessantly carrying
+on; while the ears of all classes were charmed by his eloquence, and
+their eyes by the magnificent buildings with which he adorned the city.
+At this time was erected the Parthenon, or temple of Athena the Virgin,
+adorned by Phidias with the most beautiful sculptures, especially with
+the colossal statue of the goddess in ivory and gold, forty-seven feet
+in height. The Erechtheum, or ancient sanctuary of Athena Polias, was
+rebuilt; the Propylæ´a, of Pentelic marble, erected; and the Acropolis
+now began to be called the “city of the gods.”
+
+[Sidenote: B. C. 440.]
+
+=156.= Only three islands in the neighboring seas now maintained their
+independence, and of these the most important was Samos. The Milesians,
+who had some cause of complaint against the Samians, appealed to the
+arbitration of Athens, and were joined by a party in Samos itself which
+was opposed to the oligarchy. The Athenians readily assumed the judgment
+of the case, and as Samos refused their arbitration, resolved to conquer
+the island. Pericles with a fleet proceeded to Samos, revolutionized the
+government, and brought away hostages from the most powerful families.
+But no sooner was he departed than some of the deposed party returned by
+night, overpowered the Athenian garrison, and restored the oligarchy.
+They gained possession of their hostages, who had been deposited on the
+Isle of Lemnos, and being joined by Byzantium, declared open war against
+Athens.
+
+=157.= When the news of this event reached Athens, a fleet of sixty
+vessels was immediately sent forth, Pericles being one of the ten
+commanders. Several battles were fought by sea, and the Samians were at
+length driven within the walls of their capital, where they endured a
+nine months’ siege. When at last they were forced to yield, they were
+compelled to destroy their fortifications, surrender their fleet, give
+hostages for their future conduct, and pay the expenses of the war. The
+Byzantines submitted at the same time. Athens was completely triumphant;
+but the terror she had inspired was mixed with jealousy. During the
+revolt, the rival states had seriously discussed the question of aiding
+the rebels; and it was decided in the negative mainly by the influence
+of Corinth, which, though no friend to Athens, feared that the precedent
+might be remembered in case of a revolt of her own colonies.
+
+[Sidenote: B. C. 435.]
+
+=158.= Corcyra, a colony of Corinth, had itself founded, on the Illyrian
+coast, the city of Epidamnus. This city, attacked by the Illyrians,
+led by some of her own exiled nobles, sent to Corcyra for aid, but was
+refused, as the exiles belonged to the party in power in the mother
+city. The Epidamnians now resorted to Corinth, which undertook their
+defense with great energy. Corcyra, alarmed in turn, applied to Athens
+for assistance. Opinions were divided in the assembly, but that of
+Pericles prevailed, who urged that war could not in any case be long
+delayed, and that it was more prudent to make it in alliance with
+Corcyra, whose fleet was, next to that of Athens, the most powerful in
+Greece, than to be driven at last to fight at a disadvantage.
+
+Considering, however, that Corinth, as an ally of Sparta, was included
+in the thirty years’ truce, it was resolved to make only a defensive
+alliance with Corcyra; _i.e._, to render assistance in case its
+territories should be invaded, but not to take part in any aggressive
+action. A naval battle soon occurred off the coast of Epirus, in which
+the Corinthians were the victors, and prepared to effect a landing
+in Corcyra. Ten Athenian vessels were present, under the command of
+Lacedæmonius, son of Cimon, and they were now, by the letter of their
+agreement, free to engage. But suddenly, after the signal of battle had
+been given, the Corinthians drew back and stood away for the coast of
+Epirus. Twenty Athenian ships had appeared in the distance, which they
+imagined to be the vanguard of a large fleet. Though this was a mistake,
+it had the effect of preventing further hostilities, and the Corinthians
+returned home with their prisoners.
+
+[Sidenote: B. C. 432.]
+
+=159.= Incensed at the interference of Athens, the Corinthians sought
+revenge by uniting with Prince Perdic´cas of Macedonia, to stir up
+revolts among the Athenian tributaries in the Chalcidic peninsulas. A
+battle ensued at Olynthus, in which the Athenians were victorious over
+the Corinthian general, and blockaded him in Potidæa, where he had taken
+refuge.
+
+A congress of the Peloponnesian states was held at Sparta, and complaints
+from many quarters were uttered against Athens. The Æginetans deplored
+the loss of their independence; the Megarians, the crippling of their
+trade; the Corinthians, that they were overshadowed by the towering
+ambition of their powerful neighbor. At the same time, the Corinthians
+contrasted the restless activity of Athens with the selfish inertness of
+Sparta, and threatened that if the latter still delayed to do her duty by
+the League, they would seek a more efficient ally.
+
+The envoys having departed, Sparta decided to undertake the war. Before
+proceeding to actual hostilities, it was thought best to send messengers
+to Athens, demanding, among other things, that she should “expel the
+accursed” from her presence—referring to Pericles, whose race they chose
+to consider as still tainted with sacrilege. But Pericles replied that
+the Spartans themselves had heavy accounts to settle on the score of
+sacrilege, not only for starving Pausanias in the sanctuary of Athena,
+but for dragging away and murdering the Helots who had taken refuge,
+during the late revolt, in the temple of Posidon. The other demands were
+rejected, though with more hesitation. They concerned the independence
+of Megara and Ægina, and, generally, the abdication by Athens of her
+position as head of the League. The Athenians declared that they would
+refrain from commencing hostilities, and would make just satisfaction for
+any infringement on their part of the thirty years’ truce; but that they
+were ready to meet force with force.
+
+[Sidenote: B. C. 431.]
+
+=160.= WAR IN BŒOTIA. While both parties hesitated to begin the war,
+the Thebans precipitated matters by a treacherous attack upon the city
+of Platæa. This city, instead of joining the Bœotian League, had been
+in friendly alliance with Athens, and was hence regarded with great
+jealousy by the Thebans. A small oligarchical party in Platæa favored the
+Thebans, and it was Naucli´des, the head of this party, who, at dead of
+night, admitted three hundred of them into the town. The Platæans were
+roused from sleep to find their enemies encamped in their market-place;
+but though scattered and betrayed, they did not yield. They secretly
+communicated with each other by breaking through the walls of their
+houses; and having thus formed a plan for defense, fell upon the enemy a
+little before daybreak.
+
+The Thebans were exhausted by marching all night in the rain; they were
+entangled in the narrow, crooked streets of the town; and even women
+and children fought against them by hurling tiles from the roofs. The
+reinforcement which they expected was delayed, and before it arrived the
+three hundred were either slain or captured. The Thebans without the
+walls now seized whatever persons and property they could lay their hands
+on, as security for the release of the prisoners. The Platæans sent a
+herald to declare that the captives would be immediately put to death,
+unless the ravages should cease; but that, if the Thebans would retire,
+they should be given up. The marauders withdrew, but the Platæans,
+instead of keeping their word, gathered their movable property into the
+town, and then put all their prisoners to death. Fleet-footed messengers
+had already been sent to Athens with the news. They returned with orders
+to the Platæans to do nothing of importance without the advice of the
+Athenians. It was too late, however, to save the lives of the prisoners
+or the honor of their captors.
+
+
+RECAPITULATION.
+
+    In the First Peloponnesian War (B. C. 460-457), Athens was
+    allied with Megara; Sparta and Ægina, with Corinth. At the
+    same time, the Athenians aided a revolt of Egypt against
+    Persia, and built long walls to connect their city with its
+    ports. Sparta, interfering in a war between Phocis and Doris,
+    defeated the Athenians at Tanagra; but the latter gained a more
+    decisive victory at Œnophyta, which brought Phocis, Locris,
+    and all Bœotia, except Thebes, into their alliance. Ægina was
+    conquered and made tributary to Athens. Ithome surrendered to
+    Sparta; the Helots were re-enslaved and the Messenians exiled.
+    In a new war, occasioned by the interference of Sparta at
+    Delphi, the Athenians, under Tolmides, gained some advantages,
+    but were disastrously defeated at Coronæa, with great loss of
+    influence in central Greece. Assailed at once by rebellions
+    in Eubœa and Megaris, and by a Spartan invasion, Pericles
+    defeated the latter by bribes and the former by arms. The
+    peace which followed was concluded on terms unfavorable to
+    Athens. Being called to aid a popular revolution in Samos, the
+    Athenians captured its chief city and re-established their
+    own influence. Epidamnus, in war with her mother city, was
+    aided by Corinth; while Athens, taking the part of Corcyra,
+    defeated the Corinthians at Olynthus, and besieged them two
+    years in Potidæa. A more general war was hastened by the mutual
+    treachery of the Thebans and Platæans.
+
+
+THE PELOPONNESIAN WAR.
+
+[Sidenote: B. C. 431-404.]
+
+=161.= All Greece now prepared for war—a war of twenty-seven years, which
+was to be marked by more calamities and horrors than Hellas had ever yet
+endured. On the side of Sparta fought all Peloponnesus, except Argos and
+Achaia, together with Megara, Bœotia, Phocis, Opuntian Locris, Ambracia,
+Leucadia, and Anactoria. Athens had for allies, on the mainland, Thessaly
+and Anactoria, with the cities of Naupactus and Platæa. There were
+also her tributaries on the coast of Thrace and Asia Minor, and on the
+Cyclades, beside her island allies, Chios, Lesbos, Corcyra, Zacynthus,
+and, later, Cephallenia.
+
+[Sidenote: B. C. 431.]
+
+=162.= Archidamus, king of Sparta, having collected his allies at the
+isthmus, marched into the Attic territory about the middle of June. The
+inhabitants quitted their fields, and with all the property they could
+remove, took refuge within Athens and the Piræus. Every corner and
+recess of the city walls became a dwelling. In the market-place, the
+public squares, and the precincts of the temples, temporary habitations
+arose, and the poorer sort found shelter in tents, huts, and even casks,
+placed against the Long Walls. Among this crowded population, violent
+debates arose concerning the conduct of the war. Great indignation was
+felt against Pericles for the inaction of the army, while Archidamus was
+ravaging the fields almost under their eyes.
+
+But the leader had resolved to carry the war out of Attica. For this
+purpose a combined fleet of Athenians and Corcyræans sailed around
+the Peloponnesus, disembarking troops at various points to ravage the
+country. Two Corinthian settlements in Acarnania were captured, and the
+island of Cephallenia transferred its allegiance from Sparta to Athens.
+The Æginetans were expelled, and their island occupied by Athenian
+settlers. Archidamus, after five or six weeks, marched out of Attica and
+disbanded his army. The Athenians then put their forces in motion to
+punish the Megarians, whom they considered as revolted subjects. They
+laid waste the whole territory to the gates of the capital, and the
+devastations were renewed every year while the war continued.
+
+[Sidenote: B. C. 430.]
+
+=163.= The next spring, with a new Spartan invasion, brought a still
+greater calamity to the Athenians. The plague, originating in Ethiopia,
+had traveled along the Asiatic coasts of the Mediterranean until it
+reached their city, where the crowded condition of the people made it
+spread with frightful rapidity. A terror seized the populace, some of
+whom believed that their enemies had poisoned the wells, while a greater
+number ascribed the pestilence to the wrath of Apollo, who was the
+especial protector of the Dorian race.
+
+=164.= In their passion of despair the Athenians turned against Pericles,
+whose cautious policy they considered as the cause of their misfortunes.
+Though still refusing battle, which, with the reduced numbers and
+exhausted spirit of the army, would have been almost certain defeat,
+he actively pushed his operations against the Peloponnesus. To relieve
+the crowded city of its mischievous elements, he fitted out a fleet and
+led it in person to ravage the enemy’s coasts. On his return he found
+the opposition stronger than ever, and an embassy had even been sent to
+Sparta to sue for peace. The suit had been contemptuously rejected, and
+the rage of the Athenians was only increased. Pericles persuaded them
+to persevere in the war, but his eloquence was unavailing to silence
+the fury of his personal enemies. By the influence of Cleon, his chief
+opponent, he was even accused of embezzling the public funds, and was
+fined to a large amount.
+
+[Sidenote: B. C. 429.]
+
+=165.= But the life and adversities of the great statesman were alike
+near their end. The plague had robbed him in of his nearest relatives.
+A lingering fever, following an attack of the pestilence, terminated
+his life. As he lay, seemingly unconscious, the friends surrounding his
+death-bed were rehearsing his great deeds, when the dying man interrupted
+them, saying, “All that you are praising was either the result of good
+fortune, or, in any case, common to me with many other leaders. What I
+chiefly pride myself upon is, that no Athenian has ever mourned on my
+account.”
+
+[Sidenote: B. C. 430.]
+
+=166.= The second Lacedæmonian foray was more destructive than the first,
+for the ravages extended over all Attica, even to the silver mines of
+Laurium. The fleet of the Peloponnesians destroyed the fisheries and
+commerce of Athens, and devastated the island of Zacynthus. During the
+following winter Potidæa surrendered, after a blockade of two years, and
+was occupied by a thousand Athenian colonists.
+
+[Sidenote: B. C. 429.]
+
+The third campaign of the Spartans was directed against Platæa. On
+the approach of Archidamus, the Platæans sent a solemn remonstrance,
+reminding him of the oath which Pausanias had sworn on the evening of
+their great battle, making Platæa forever sacred from invasion. The king
+replied that the Platæans, too, were bound by oath to labor for the
+independence of every Grecian state. He reminded them of their heinous
+crime in the slaughter of the Theban prisoners, but promised that, if
+they would abandon the cause of Athens and remain neutral during the war,
+their privileges should be respected. The Platæans refused to forsake
+their ancient ally, and the siege of their city began.
+
+[Sidenote: B. C. 429-427.]
+
+=167.= The garrison which thus defied the whole Peloponnesian army,
+consisted of only 480 men, but they made up in energy what they lacked in
+numbers. Archidamus began by shutting up every outlet of the town with a
+palisade of wood, then erected against this a mound of earth and stone,
+forming an inclined plane, up which his troops could march. The Platæans
+undermined the mound, which fell in, and thus defeated seventy days’ work
+of the whole besieging army. They also built a new wall within the old
+one, so that, if this were taken, the Spartans would still be no nearer
+the possession of the city.
+
+Seeing that the will of the Platæans could only be subdued by famine, the
+allies now turned the siege into a blockade. They surrounded the city
+with a double wall, and roofed the intervening space, so as to afford
+shelter to the soldiers on duty. The Platæans thus endured a complete
+separation from the outer world for two years. Provisions began to fail;
+and, in the second year, nearly half the garrison made their escape,
+by climbing over the barracks and fortifications of their besiegers in
+the rain and darkness of a December night. The Platæans, though thus
+reduced in numbers, came at length to absolute starvation. A herald now
+appeared from the Spartan commander, requiring their submission, but
+promising that only the guilty should be punished. They yielded. When
+brought before the five Spartan judges, every man was found guilty and
+led to execution. The town and territory of Platæa were made over to the
+Thebans, who destroyed all private dwellings, and with the materials
+erected a huge barrack, to afford shelter to visitors, and dwellings to
+the serfs who cultivated the land. The city of Platæa was blotted out
+from the map of Greece.
+
+[Sidenote: B. C. 429.]
+
+=168.= The Athenians, with their ally Sital´ces, a Thracian chief, were
+warring in the north with little success. Sitalces, with an irregular but
+powerful host of 150,000 Thracians, invaded Macedonia with the intention
+of dethroning Perdiccas. The Macedonians, unable to meet him in the open
+field, withdrew into their fortresses, and Sitalces, who had no means
+for conducting sieges, retired after thirty days. Phor´mio, an Athenian
+captain, gained two victories, meanwhile, in the Corinthian Gulf, over
+a vastly superior number of Spartans. In the first engagement he had
+but twenty ships, to the Spartan forty-seven; in the second, without
+reinforcements, he met a fresh Spartan fleet of seventy-seven sail.
+
+[Sidenote: B. C. 428.]
+
+The fourth year of the war was marked by the revolt of Mytilene,
+capital of Lesbos. Envoys were sent to Sparta to implore assistance,
+which was willingly granted, and the Mytilenians were received into the
+Peloponnesian League.
+
+=169.= In the spring of 427, the Spartan fleet advanced to Mytilene, but
+it arrived only to find the town in the possession of the Athenians.
+Nearly reduced by famine, the governor, by the advice of a Spartan envoy,
+had armed all the men of the lower classes for a last desperate sortie.
+The result was contrary to his expectations. The mass of the Mytilenian
+people preferred the Athenian supremacy to that of their own oligarchic
+government. Emboldened by their arms, they declared that they would treat
+directly with the Athenians, unless all their demands were granted. The
+governor had no choice but to open negotiations himself. The city was
+surrendered, and the fate of its inhabitants was left to be decided by
+the popular assembly in Athens, whither the ring-leaders of the revolt
+were sent.
+
+=170.= A thousand Athenians assembled in the Agora to decide the fate
+of their prisoners. Salæ´thus, the Spartan envoy, was instantly put to
+death. With regard to the rest, a spirited debate ensued. Cleon the
+tanner, the former opponent of Pericles, took a prominent part; and
+in spite of more humane and moderate counsels, actually succeeded in
+carrying his brutal proposition, to put to the sword all the men of
+Mytilene, and sell the women and children into slavery. Iniquitous as
+such an order would be in any case, it was the more so in this, because
+the greater number of the Mytilenians were friendly to Athens, while the
+revolt had been the act of the oligarchy, who were enemies of the people.
+So strong had been the opposition, that Cleon feared a reversal of the
+sentence, and therefore had a galley instantly dispatched to Lesbos, with
+orders for its immediate execution.
+
+His apprehensions were well founded. A single night’s reflection filled
+the better sort of Athenians with horror at the inhuman decision into
+which they had been hurried. They demanded a new assembly to reconsider
+the question; and though this was contrary to law, the _strategi_
+consented and convened the citizens. In the second day’s debate the
+atrocious decree was rescinded. Every nerve was now strained to enable
+the mercy-bearing barque to overtake the messengers of death, who were
+a whole day’s journey in advance. The strongest oarsmen were selected,
+and urged to their greatest exertion by the promise of large rewards if
+they should arrive in time. Their food was given them while they plied
+the oar, and sleep was allowed them only in short intervals, and by
+turns. The weather proved favorable, and they arrived just as Paches, who
+had received the first dispatch, was preparing for its execution. The
+Mytilenians were saved, but the walls of their city were leveled, and
+its fleet surrendered to the Athenians. The island of Lesbos, with the
+exception of Methym´na, which had refused all share in the revolt, was
+divided into 3,000 parts, of which 300 were devoted to the gods, and the
+rest assigned by lot to Athenian settlers. The prisoners at Athens were
+tried for their share in the conspiracy, and put to death.
+
+[Sidenote: B. C. 427.]
+
+=171.= The Corcyrean prisoners who had been carried to Corinth in 432,
+were now sent home, in the hope that their account of the generous
+treatment they had received would induce their countrymen to withdraw
+from the Athenian alliance. They joined with the oligarchical faction to
+effect a revolution in Corcyra, killed the chiefs of the popular party,
+gained possession of the harbor, the arsenal, and the market-place,
+and thus, by overawing the people, obtained a vote in the assembly to
+maintain in future a strict neutrality. The people, however, fortified
+themselves in the higher parts of the town, and called to their aid the
+serfs from the interior of the island, to whom they promised freedom.
+
+The oligarchists set fire to the town, but while it was burning a small
+Athenian squadron arrived from Naupactus, and its commander attempted,
+with great wisdom, to make peace between the contending parties. He had
+to all appearance effected this design, when a Peloponnesian fleet, more
+than four times as numerous as his own, appeared, under the command of
+Alci´das. The Athenians withdrew without loss, and Alcidas had Corcyra
+for the moment in his power; but with his usual want of promptness, he
+spent a day in ravaging the island, and, at night, beacon fires on Leucas
+announced the approach of an Athenian fleet outnumbering his own. Alcidas
+drew off before daybreak, leaving the oligarchists in the city to their
+fate. The next seven days were a reign of terror in Corcyra. The popular
+party, protected by the presence of the Athenians, abandoned itself to
+revenge. Civil hatred was stronger than natural affection. A father
+slew his own son; brothers had no pity for brothers. The aristocratic
+party was nearly exterminated; but five hundred escaped, and fortified
+themselves on Mount Isto´ne, near the capital.
+
+[Sidenote: B. C. 426.]
+
+=172.= The sixth year of the war opened with floods and earthquakes,
+which seemed an echo in nature of the moral convulsions of Greece. The
+plague was raging again at Athens. To appease the wrath of Apollo, a
+solemn purification of the isle of Delos, his birth-place, was performed
+in the autumn. All bodies that had been buried there were removed to a
+neighboring island, and the Delian festival was revived with increased
+magnificence. The usual Spartan invasion of Attica had been prevented
+this year, either by awe of the supposed wrath of the gods, or by fear of
+the plague; but in the seventh year of the war (B. C. 425), their king,
+Agis, again crossed the borders and ravaged the country. He was recalled,
+after fifteen days, by the news that the Athenians had established a
+military station on the coast of Messenia.
+
+=173.= A fleet bound for Sicily, under Eurymedon and Sophocles, had been
+delayed for a time by a storm, near the harbor of Pylos. The commanders
+selected this place for a settlement of Messenians from Naupactus, who
+would thus be able to communicate with their Helot kinsmen, and harass
+the Spartans. Demosthenes was left with five ships and two hundred
+soldiers, who were increased, by a reinforcement of Messenians, to a
+thousand men. The wrath of the Spartans was only equaled by their alarm
+at this infringement of their territory. Their fleet was instantly
+ordered from Corcyra, while Agis, with his army, marched from Attica.
+The long and narrow island of Sphacte´ria, which covered the entrance to
+the Bay of Pylos, was occupied by Thrasymel´idas, the Spartan, while his
+ships were sheltered in the basin which it inclosed. Demosthenes, while
+awaiting reinforcements, had to meet a vastly superior number with his
+handful of men. The attack from the sea was led by Bras´idas, one of the
+greatest captains whom Sparta ever produced. He fought on the prow of the
+foremost vessel, urging his men forward by looks and words; but he was
+severely wounded, and the battle ended with no advantage to the Spartans.
+It was renewed the second day with no better success, and the Athenians
+erected a trophy, which they ornamented with the shield of Brasidas.
+
+[Sidenote: B. C. 425.]
+
+The arrival of the Athenian fleet was followed by a severe and still
+more decisive battle. The victorious Athenians proceeded to blockade
+Sphacteria, which contained the choicest Peloponnesian troops. So serious
+was the crisis, that the ephors saw no escape except to sue for peace.
+An armistice was agreed upon, and the better spirits on both sides began
+to hope for a termination of the war. But the foolish vanity of Cleon
+and his party demanded the most extravagant terms, and the voice of
+reason was drowned. Hostilities re-commenced, with equal vexation to both
+parties. Demosthenes, fearing that the storms of winter would interrupt
+his blockade, resolved to make an attack upon the island, and sent to
+Athens explaining his position and demanding reinforcements. The report
+was disheartening to the Assembly, which now began to accuse Cleon for
+having persuaded it to let slip the occasion for an honorable peace.
+Cleon retorted by accusing the officers of cowardice and incapacity, and
+declared that, if _he_ were general, he would take Sphacteria at once!
+At this boast of the tanner, the whole assembly broke out into laughter,
+and cries, “Why don’t you go, then?” were heard on all sides. The lively
+spirits of the Athenians recovered with a bound from their unusual
+depression, and the mere joke soon grew into a purpose. Cleon tried to
+draw back, but the Assembly insisted. At last he engaged, with a certain
+number of auxiliaries added to the troops already at Pylos, to take the
+island in twenty days, and either kill all the Spartans upon it, or bring
+them in chains to Athens.
+
+=174.= Singular as were the circumstances of Cleon’s commission, his
+success was equally remarkable. Demosthenes had made all ready for the
+attack; and to his prudence, aided by the accidental burning of the woods
+on Sphacteria, rather than to the generalship of Cleon, the victory was
+due. The Athenians, landing before daybreak, overpowered the guard at the
+southern end of the island, and then drew up in order of battle, sending
+out parties of skirmishers to provoke the enemy to a combat. The Spartan
+general, blinded by the light ashes raised by the march of his men,
+advanced, with some difficulty, over the half-burnt stumps of the trees.
+He was greatly outnumbered by his assailants, who harassed him from a
+distance with arrows, and forced him at length to retire to the extremity
+of the island. Here the Spartans fought again with their accustomed
+bravery; but a party of Messenians, who had clambered over some crags
+usually deemed inaccessible, appeared upon the heights above, and decided
+the fate of the battle. All the surviving Spartans surrendered, and Cleon
+and Demosthenes, setting out immediately after the battle, arrived at
+Athens with their prisoners within the twenty days. This victory was one
+of the most important that the Athenians had gained. The harbor of Pylos
+was strongly fortified and garrisoned with Messenian troops, for a base
+of operations against Laconia.
+
+[Sidenote: B. C. 424.]
+
+=175.= At the beginning of the eighth year the Athenians were every-where
+triumphant, and the Spartans, humbled and distressed, had repeatedly
+asked for peace. Nicias, in the early part of the year, conquered the
+island of Cythera, and placed garrisons in its two chief towns, which
+were a continual defiance of the Lacedæmonians. He then ravaged the
+coasts of Laconia, and captured, among other places, the town of Thyr´ea,
+where the Æginetans, after their expulsion from their own island, had
+been permitted to settle. Those of the original exiles who survived
+were carried to Athens and put to death. The brutalizing influences of
+war were more apparent every year, and these cold-blooded massacres had
+become almost of common occurrence.
+
+The Spartans, about the same time, alarmed by the nearness of the
+Messenian garrisons of Pylos and Cythera, gave notice that those Helots
+who had distinguished themselves by their faithful services during the
+war, should be set at liberty. A large number of the bravest and ablest
+appeared to claim the promise. Two thousand of these were selected as
+worthy of emancipation, crowned with garlands, and dignified with high
+religious honors. But in a few days they had all disappeared, by means
+known only to the Spartan ephors—men unmoved, either by honor or pity,
+from their narrow regard to the supposed interest of the state.
+
+[Sidenote: B. C. 424.]
+
+=176.= The success of the Athenians did not entirely desert them in
+their Megarian expedition, but their attempt upon Bœotia resulted only
+in disaster. The chief movement was executed by Hippoc´rates, who led an
+army of more than 32,000 soldiers across the Bœotian frontier to Delium,
+a place strongly situated near Tanagra, among the cliffs of the eastern
+coast. Here he fortified the temple of Apollo, and placing a garrison in
+the works, set out for home. The Bœotians had collected a large army at
+Tanagra, which now moved to intercept the Athenians upon the heights of
+Delium. The battle commenced late in the day. The Athenian right was at
+first successful, but their left was borne down by the Theban phalanx. In
+their ranks were Socrates, the philosopher, and his pupils, Alcibi´ades
+and Xenophon, all destined to the highest fame in Grecian history. At
+length the Bœotian cavalry appeared, and decided the fortunes of the
+day. The Athenians fled in all directions, and only the fall of night
+prevented their complete destruction. Delium was taken by siege after
+seventeen days.
+
+=177.= Soon after these disasters, the Athenians lost all their dominion
+in Thrace. Brasidas had led a small but well chosen army to the aid of
+Perdiccas and the Chalcidian towns. The bravery and integrity of this
+great general led many of the allies of Athens to forsake her party, and
+when he suddenly appeared before Amphipolis, that city surrendered with
+scarcely an attempt at resistance. Thucydides,[51] the historian, was
+general in that region. The Athenian party in Amphipolis sent to him for
+aid, but he arrived too late. For this failure, whether proceeding from
+necessity or carelessness, the general was sentenced to banishment, and
+spent his next twenty years in exile, during which he contributed more
+by his literary work to the glory of Greece, than he would probably have
+done in military command. Brasidas proceeded to the easternmost of the
+three Chalcidian peninsulas, and received the submission of nearly all
+the towns.
+
+The Athenians were now so disheartened by their losses, that they, in
+turn, began to propose peace; and the Spartans, anxious for the return of
+their noble youths who were prisoners in Athens, were equally desirous of
+a treaty. To this end a year’s truce was agreed upon, in 423, to afford
+time for permanent negotiations. Unhappily, two days after the beginning
+of the truce, Scio´ne revolted from the Athenians, who demanded its
+restitution. The Spartans refused, and the whole year was suffered to
+pass away without any further efforts toward peace. At its expiration,
+Cleon advanced into Thrace with a fleet and army. He took the towns of
+Toro´ne and Galepsus, and was proceeding against Amphipolis, when a
+battle ensued which ended at once his life and his assumption of power.
+Brasidas, too, was mortally wounded, but he lived long enough to know
+that he was victorious.
+
+=178.= PEACE OF NICIAS. The two great obstacles to peace were now
+removed, and, in the spring of 421, a treaty for fifty years, commonly
+called the “Peace of Nicias,” was concluded between Athens and Sparta.
+Some allies of the latter complained that Sparta had sacrificed their
+interests to her own, and formed a new league, with Argos for their head.
+Athens made a new alliance for a hundred years with Argos, Elis, and
+Mantine´a, B. C. 420.
+
+
+RECAPITULATION.
+
+    In the greater Peloponnesian war (B. C. 431-404), nearly all
+    central and southern Greece were allied with Sparta; most
+    of the maritime states, with Athens. Within the latter city
+    were crowded most of the people of Attica, in terror of the
+    Spartan invasions. Great numbers died of the plague; its
+    most illustrious victim was Pericles. A two years’ blockade
+    of Platæa, by the Spartans, ended with the annihilation of
+    the city. The revolt of Lesbos was subdued by Athens, and
+    the Mytilenians were condemned to death, but the revengeful
+    sentence was reversed. A revolution in Corcyra resulted in
+    a seven days’ massacre of the aristocratic party. A solemn
+    purification of Delos was performed, to mitigate the plague
+    at Athens. The Athenians established a colony at Pylos, to
+    harass Laconia, and were victors in several naval battles.
+    Cleon, the tanner, with Demosthenes, the general, conquered the
+    Spartans at Sphacteria. Nicias captured Cythera, and garrisoned
+    its towns. The brutal character of the war was shown in the
+    massacre of exiled Æginetans at Athens, and of two thousand
+    Helots at Sparta. The disastrous battle or Delium ended the
+    invasion of Bœotia by the Athenians, who lost, at the same
+    time, all their possessions in Thrace. The Peace of Nicias was
+    concluded B. C. 421, and Athens made a new league with some
+    former allies of Sparta.
+
+
+THE SICILIAN EXPEDITION.
+
+[Sidenote: B. C. 420.]
+
+=179.= From two previous celebrations of the Olympic Games the Athenians
+had been excluded, but, in the summer of this year, the Elean heralds
+appeared again to invite their attendance. Those who looked to see
+Athens poverty-stricken, from her many losses, were surprised at the
+magnificence of her delegates, who made the most costly display in
+all the processions. Alcibiades entered on the lists seven four-horse
+chariots, and received two olive crowns in the races. This young man
+was among the ablest citizens that Athens ever possessed. His genius,
+bravery, and quickness in emergencies might have made him her greatest
+benefactor; but, through his unregulated ambition and utter lack of
+conscience, he became the cause of her greatest calamities.
+
+=180.= War soon broke out between the Spartans and the Argives, in which
+the Spartan king, Agis, won the important battle of Mantinea, B. C. 418.
+The oligarchical party, gaining power at Argos, cast off the alliance
+with Athens, and made a treaty with Sparta. But the nobles abused their
+power in brutal outrages upon the people, who effected another revolution
+and obtained possession of the city. By their request, Alcibiades came
+to their aid with a fleet and army. Though the Spartans and Athenians
+were nominally at peace, the garrison of Pylos was still committing
+depredations in Laconia, and Spartan privateers were seriously injuring
+Athenian commerce.
+
+=181.= About this time, an embassy from Sicily besought the aid of the
+Athenians for the city of Egesta. It was involved in a contest with its
+neighbor, Selinus, which had obtained help from Syracuse. The “war of
+races” had, indeed, broken out twelve years before in Sicily, and the
+Athenians had more than once sent aid to the Ionian cities, Leonti´ni
+and Camari´na, against their Dorian neighbors, who had joined the
+Peloponnesian League. Alcibiades threw his whole influence into the cause
+of Egesta, hoping at once to improve his wasted fortunes with Sicilian
+spoils, and gratify his ambition with the glory of conquest. He even
+hoped, beside making Athens supreme over all the Hellenic colonies, to
+conquer the empire of Carthage, in the western Mediterranean.
+
+Nicias and all the moderate party opposed the enterprise. They only
+prevailed in having an embassy sent to Egesta, to ascertain if its people
+were really able to fulfill their promise of furnishing funds for the
+war. The envoys were completely outwitted. In the temple of Aphrodite
+they saw a magnificent display of vessels which appeared to be solid
+gold, but were really silver-gilt. They were feasted at the houses of
+citizens, and were surprised by the profusion of gold and silver plate
+which adorned their sideboards, not suspecting that the same articles
+were passing from house to house, and doing repeated service in their
+entertainment. Sixty talents of silver were paid as a first installment,
+and the commissioners went home with glowing accounts of Egestan wealth.
+
+[Sidenote: B. C. 415.]
+
+=182.= All doubt disappeared from most minds in Athens, and Nicias,
+Alcibiades, and Lamachus were appointed to lead an expedition to Sicily.
+The zeal of the Athenians knew no bounds. Young and old, rich and
+poor, alike demanded a share in the great expedition. The generals had
+difficulty in selecting from the throng of volunteers. The fleet was on
+the point of sailing, when a mysterious event threw the excited multitude
+into consternation. The _Hermæ_, which stood before every door in Athens,
+before every temple or gymnasium, and in every public square, were found
+one morning reduced to shapeless masses of stone. Not one escaped. The
+people, in an agony of superstitious horror, demanded the detection and
+punishment of the criminal. Suspicion fell upon Alcibiades, because
+he was known to have burlesqued the Eleusinian mysteries in a drunken
+frolic, and was supposed to be capable of any sacrilege. He indignantly
+denied his guilt, and demanded an immediate examination. But his enemies
+contrived to have it postponed until his return, thus sending him out
+under the burden of an unproved charge, which might be revived for his
+condemnation in case of disaster.
+
+=183.= On the day appointed for the sailing of the armament, nearly
+the whole population of Athens accompanied the soldiers on their march
+at day-break to Piræus. When all were on board, the trumpet commanded
+silence, and the voice of the herald, in unison with that of the people,
+was heard in prayer. The pæan was then sung, while the officer at the
+prow of each vessel poured a libation from a golden goblet into the sea.
+At a given signal, the entire fleet slipped its cables and started at the
+utmost speed, each crew striving to be first at Ægina.
+
+=184.= The whole armament of Athenians and allies mustered at Corcyra in
+July, 415. It numbered 136 vessels of war and 500 transports, carrying
+6,300 soldiers, beside artisans and a large provision of food and
+arms. When the fleet approached the coast of Italy, three fast-sailing
+triremes were sent to notify the Egestæans of its arrival, and to learn
+their present condition. These rejoined the fleet at Rhegium, with the
+unwelcome report that the wealth of Egesta was wholly fictitious, and
+that thirty talents more were the extent of the aid to be expected.
+The three admirals were now divided in opinion. Nicias was for sailing
+at once to Selinus, making the best terms possible, and then returning
+home. Alcibiades proposed to seek new allies among the Greek cities, and
+with their aid to attack both Selinus and Syracuse. Lamachus urged an
+immediate attack upon the latter city, the greatest and wealthiest on
+the island. This counsel was at once the boldest and the safest, for the
+Syracusans were unprepared for defense, and their surrender would have
+decided the fate of the island; but, unhappily, Lamachus was neither rich
+nor influential. His plan was disregarded, and that of Alcibiades adopted.
+
+=185.= The fleet, sailing southward, reconnoitered the defenses of
+Syracuse, and took possession of Catana, which became its headquarters.
+At this point, Alcibiades received from Athens a decree of the Assembly,
+requiring his return for trial. A judicial inquiry had acquitted him of
+the mutilation of the Hermæ, but he was still charged with profaning
+the Eleusinian Mysteries, by representing them at his own house for the
+entertainment of his friends. This was an unpardonable crime, and those
+noble families which had derived from their heroic or divine ancestors an
+especial right to officiate in the ceremonies, felt themselves grossly
+insulted. The public trireme which brought the summons to Alcibiades,
+was under special orders not to arrest him, but to suffer him to return
+in his own vessel. The wily general availed himself of this courtesy to
+effect his escape. Landing at Thurii, he eluded his pursuers, and the
+messengers returned to Athens without him. Here in his absence he was
+condemned to death, his property confiscated, and the Eumolpidæ solemnly
+pronounced him “accursed.”
+
+=186.= The Athenians had spent three months in Sicily with so little
+effect, that the Syracusans began to regard them with contempt. Nicias,
+thus shamed into attempting something, spread a report that the Catanæans
+were inclined to expel the Athenians from their city, and thus drew a
+large army from Syracuse to their aid. During its absence from home, the
+whole Athenian fleet sailed into the Great Harbor of Syracuse, and landed
+a force which intrenched itself near the mouth of the Anapus. A battle
+followed on the return of the Syracusans, and Nicias was successful.
+Instead of following up this advantage, he retired into winter-quarters
+at Catana, and afterward at Naxos, while he sent to Athens for a supply
+of money, and to his Sicilian allies for a re-enforcement of men.
+
+The Syracusans spent the winter in active preparation. They built a new
+wall across the peninsula, between the Bay of Thapsus and the Great
+Port, covering their city on the west and north-west. They sent, at the
+same time, to Corinth and Sparta for help, and found in the latter city
+an unexpected ally. Alcibiades had crossed from Italy to Greece, and
+had received a special invitation to Sparta. Here he indulged his spite
+against his countrymen by revealing all their plans, and urging the
+Spartans to send an army into Sicily to disconcert their movements.
+
+[Sidenote: B. C. 414.]
+
+=187.= With the opening of spring, Nicias commenced the siege by
+fortifying the heights of Epipolæ, which commanded the city. He
+built, also, a fort at Sy´ke, and dislodged the Syracusans from the
+counter-walls which they were constructing. The Athenian fleet was
+stationed in the Great Harbor, and the Syracusans, despairing of
+effectual resistance, sent messengers to arrange terms of surrender. But
+the brave Lamachus had been slain, and Nicias, now sole commander, was
+too inactive to seize the victory just within his grasp.
+
+=188.= At this point, Gylip´pus, the Spartan, arrived with only four
+ships on the Italian coast, and supposing that Syracuse and all Sicily
+were irrecoverably lost, sought only to preserve the cities on the
+peninsula. To his delight, he learned that the Athenians had not even
+completed their northern line of works around Syracuse. He hastened
+through the Straits of Messina, which he found unguarded, and, landing at
+Him´era, began to raise an army from the Dorian cities of Sicily. With
+these he marched to Syracuse directly over the heights of Epipolæ, which
+Nicias had neglected to hold. Entering the city, he sent orders to the
+Athenian general to leave the island within five days. Nicias disregarded
+the message, but the acts which followed proved that the Spartan was
+master of the situation. He captured the Athenian fort at Labalum, built
+another upon the heights of Epipolæ, and connected it with the city by a
+strong wall.
+
+[Sidenote: B. C. 413.]
+
+The Sicilian towns which had hesitated now joined the winning side.
+Re-enforcements arrived from Corinth, Leucas, and Ambracia; and Nicias,
+unable to continue the siege with his present force, withdrew to the
+headland of Plemmyr´ium, south of the Great Port. His ships were out of
+repair, his men disheartened and inclined to desert, and his own health
+declining. He wrote to Athens, begging that the army might be instantly
+re-enforced and he himself recalled. Athens was in a state of siege, for
+the Spartan king, Agis, was encamped at Decele´a, fourteen miles north of
+the city, in a position to command the whole Athenian plain. The public
+funds were nearly exhausted, hunger began to be felt, and the diminished
+number of citizens were worn out with the labor of defending the walls
+day and night. It was resolved, however, to re-enforce Nicias, and, at
+the same time, harass Sparta on her own territory. For this purpose,
+Char´icles was sent to plant a military station on the south coast of
+Laconia, similar to that of Pylos in Messenia; while Demosthenes and
+Eurymedon conducted a fleet and army to Sicily. The first enterprise was
+successful; the second was too late.
+
+=189.= The Syracusans had been defeated in one naval battle, but in
+a second, lasting two days, they were completely victorious, and
+the Athenian ships were locked up in the extremity of the harbor.
+Demosthenes’ arrival with his fresh forces had some effect in checking
+the enemy and raising the spirits of his countrymen. Perceiving at
+once that Epipolæ was the vital point, he directed all his efforts to
+its re-capture, but without success. Seeing, now, that the siege was
+hopeless, he urged Nicias to return home and drive the Spartans out of
+Attica. But, remembering the lively hopes and the magnificent ceremonies
+with which the armament had set forth, Nicias could not consent to return
+to Athens covered with the disgrace of failure. Neither would he withdraw
+to Thapsus or Catana, where Demosthenes urged the advantages of an open
+sea and constant supplies of provisions. But, large re-enforcements
+arriving for Syracuse, this retreat became necessary, and the plans
+were so well laid that it might easily have been effected without the
+knowledge of the enemy.
+
+[Sidenote: Aug. 27, 413.]
+
+Unhappily, an eclipse of the moon occurred on the very eve of the
+intended movement. The imperfect astronomy of those days had not foretold
+the event, and the soothsayers could only conclude that Artemis, the
+especial guardian of Syracuse, was showing her anger against its
+assailants. They declared that the army must remain three times nine days
+in its present position. During this delay, the disconcerted plan became
+known to the Syracusans, who resolved to strike a blow while the enemy
+was within their reach. A battle by land and sea was the result. In the
+former, the Athenians beat off their assailants; but, in the latter,
+their fleet was utterly defeated and Eurymedon slain.
+
+=190.= The Syracusans now resolved upon the total destruction of their
+enemy. They blocked up the Great Harbor by a line of vessels moored
+across its entrance. The only hope for the Athenians, perhaps for Athens
+itself, was to break this line, and to this end Nicias again prepared for
+battle. The amphitheater of hills which surround the harbor was crowded
+with spectators of either party, watching with anxious eyes the conflict
+upon which their fates depended. The water was covered with the yachts of
+wealthy Syracusans, ready to offer their services whenever they might be
+demanded. The first attack of the Athenians was upon the barrier of ships
+at the entrance of the harbor. It failed, and the Syracusan fleet of 76
+triremes then engaged the 110 of the Athenians. The crash of the iron
+prows, the shouts of the combatants, and the answering groans or cheers
+of their friends upon the shore, filled the air with a perpetual clamor.
+For a long time the issue was doubtful, but, at last, the fleet of Nicias
+began to retreat toward the shore. A cry of despair arose from the
+Athenian army, answered by shouts of triumph from the pursuing vessels
+and the citizens on the walls.
+
+The Athenian fleet was now reduced to sixty vessels, and the Syracusan to
+fifty. Nicias and Demosthenes besought their men to renew the effort to
+force their way out of the harbor, but their spirits were so far broken
+that they refused any further combat by sea. The army still numbered
+40,000 men, and it was resolved to retreat by land to some friendly
+city, where they could defend themselves until transports should arrive.
+If this design had been instantly put in execution, it might have been
+successful; for the Syracusans had given themselves up to drunken
+revelries, occasioned equally by the rejoicings over their victory and by
+the festival of Hercules, and had no thoughts to spare for their fugitive
+foe. But Hermoc´rates, the most prudent of their number, resolved
+to prevent what he foresaw would be the Athenian movement. He sent
+messengers to the wall, who pretended to come from spies of Nicias within
+the city, and warned the generals not to move that night, as all the
+roads were strongly guarded. Nicias fell into the snare, and sacrificed
+his last hope of escape.
+
+=191.= On the second day after the battle, the army began its march
+toward the interior, leaving the deserted fleet in the harbor, the dead
+unburied, and the wounded to the vengeance of the foe. On the third day
+of the march, the road lay over a steep cliff, which was guarded by a
+Syracusan force. Two days’ assaults upon this position were unsuccessful,
+and the generals took counsel during the night to turn toward the sea.
+Nicias, with the van, succeeded in reaching the coast; but Demosthenes
+lost his way, was overtaken by the enemy, and surrounded in a narrow
+pass, where he surrendered the shattered remnants of his army, numbering
+six thousand men. Nicias was now pursued, and overtaken at the river
+Asina´rus. Multitudes perished in the attempt to cross. Pressed closely
+by the army of Gylippus, the rear rushed forward upon the spears of their
+comrades, or were hurled down the steep banks and carried away by the
+current. All order was lost, and Nicias surrendered at discretion. The
+generals were condemned to death. The common soldiers, imprisoned in the
+stone-quarries, without food or shelter, suffered greater miseries than
+all that had preceded. A few who survived were sold as slaves, and their
+talents and accomplishments won, in some instances, the friendship of
+their masters.
+
+
+RECAPITULATION.
+
+    Alcibiades sustained the credit of Athens in the Olympic Games,
+    carried aid to the Argives against the Spartans, and zealously
+    promoted the Sicilian expedition of his countrymen. On the eve
+    of departure he was accused of sacrilege, and after his arrival
+    in Sicily he was sentenced to death, and pronounced accursed.
+    The siege of Syracuse, notwithstanding the great efforts of
+    the Athenians, resulted in failure and disaster, while Athens
+    itself was besieged by the king of Sparta. Reinforcements, led
+    forth by Demosthenes, only completed the exhaustion of the
+    city. The Syracusans gained a naval battle in their harbor, and
+    captured the two Athenian armies in their retreat.
+
+
+DECLINE OF ATHENS.
+
+[Sidenote: B. C. 412.]
+
+=192.= In the midst of private grief and national dismay, the Athenians
+learned that their allies were deserting them. Alcibiades was stirring
+up revolts in Chios, which, with Lesbos and Eubœa, implored the aid of
+Sparta to free them from their dependence. The two satraps of Asia Minor
+sent envoys to the same power, inviting her coöperation in overthrowing
+the Athenian empire in Asia, and pledging Persian gold for the entire
+expense. To the lasting shame of Sparta, she concluded a treaty at
+Miletus, engaging to unite with Persia in a war against Athens, and to
+restore to the Persian dominion all the cities and territories which
+it had formerly embraced. This clause was explained, in a subsequent
+treaty, to include not only all the islands of the Ægean, but Thessaly
+and Bœotia, thus yielding to the Persians the field of Platæa, and
+fixing, their frontier on the very border of Attica. Miletus itself was
+immediately surrendered to Tissaphernes.
+
+=193.= In this general defection Samos remained faithful, and afforded
+a most important station for the Athenian fleet during the remaining
+years of the war. The Samians, warned by the example of Chios, overthrew
+their oligarchical government, and the democracy thus established
+was acknowledged by Athens as an equal and independent ally. Great
+preparations were now made in Athens. The reserve fund of a thousand
+talents, which had lain untouched since the time of Pericles, was
+applied to fitting out a fleet against Chios. Once more the Athenians
+were successful, both by sea and land. Lesbos and Clazomenæ were
+reconquered, the Chians defeated, and, in a battle near Miletus, the
+Spartans themselves were overcome. That city remained in the hands of
+the Persians and Lacedæmonians, but the relations between these widely
+contrasted allies were no longer cordial. The Spartans were ashamed of
+their dealings with the great enemy of Greece, and Tissaphernes was under
+the influence of Alcibiades. This deeply plotting Athenian persuaded
+the satrap that it was not the interest of Persia to allow any party
+in Greece to become powerful, but, rather, to let them wear each other
+out by mutual hostilities, and then appropriate the domains of both.
+This advice tended most against the Spartans, who were now so strongly
+reinforced that they might soon have put an end to the war. Tissaphernes,
+accordingly, held the Spartan fleet inactive, waiting for the Phœnicians,
+who were never to appear; and when this pretext would no longer avail, he
+applied his golden arguments to its commanders with the same effect.
+
+=194.= Alcibiades now sought to bring the satrap into alliance with
+Athens; and failing in this, he tried at least to convince his countrymen
+at Samos that he had power to effect such an alliance, for his sole
+desire was to be recalled to his native city. Hating and fearing the
+Athenian democracy, he made one condition, however, to his intercession
+with the Persian, which was, that a revolution should be effected, and
+an oligarchical government established. The generals at Samos acceded
+to this plan, and Pisander was sent to Athens to organize the political
+clubs in favor of the revolution.
+
+When he presented the scheme of Alcibiades in the Assembly, a great
+tumult arose. The people clamored against the surrender of their rights;
+the Eumolpidæ protested against the return of a wretch who had profaned
+the Mysteries. Pisander could only plead the exhaustion and the misery of
+the Republic; but this argument, though distasteful, was unanswerable.
+The people reluctantly consented to the change in the constitution, and
+Pisander, with ten colleagues, was sent to treat with Alcibiades. The
+exile well knew that he had promised more than he could perform. To
+save his credit, he received the eleven ambassadors in the presence of
+Tissaphernes, and made such extravagant demands in his name, that they
+themselves angrily broke up the conference and withdrew.
+
+[Sidenote: B. C. 411.]
+
+=195.= Though convinced that they had been cheated by Alcibiades,
+they had now gone too far to recede from the proposed revolution.
+Pisander, with five of his colleagues, returned to Athens, while the
+rest went about among the allies to establish oligarchies. At Athens
+the old offices were abolished, and a Council of Four Hundred, chiefly
+self-elected, held power for four months. By the aid of the army at
+Samos, a counter-revolution was effected, and the leaders of the
+oligarchy were accused of treason for their dealings with the Spartans.
+Most of them fled; but two, Ar´cheptol´emus and Antiphon, were tried and
+executed.
+
+=196.= The remainder of the Peloponnesian war was wholly maritime, and
+its scene of operations was on the coast of Asia Minor. The Spartans, by
+long practice and close collision with their great rivals, had become
+nearly equal to the Athenians in naval skill. Their attention to this arm
+of the service was shown by the yearly appointment of the _navarchus_,
+an officer whose power, while it lasted, was even greater than that of
+the kings, for he was above the control of the ephors.
+
+[Sidenote: B. C. 411.]
+
+=197.= Min´darus, the Spartan commander at Miletus, becoming disgusted
+with the fickle policy of Tissaphernes, set sail for the Hellespont,
+hoping to find the other satrap more constant to the Spartan alliance.
+He was followed by an Athenian fleet, under Thrasyl´lus, which, though
+less numerous than his own, inflicted upon him a severe defeat in the
+strait between Sestus and Abydus. Mindarus now sent for the allied fleet
+at Eubœa, but in passing Mount Athos it was overtaken by a violent storm,
+and wholly destroyed. The Athenians followed up their advantage by the
+capture of Cyz´icus, which had revolted from them; and, a few weeks
+later, gained another great battle near Abydus, by the timely aid of
+Alcibiades.
+
+=198.= In the spring of 410, Mindarus was besieging Cyzicus, and the
+Athenians determined to relieve it. They passed up the Hellespont in the
+night, and assembled at Proconnesus. Alcibiades moved toward Cyzicus
+with his division of the fleet, and succeeded in enticing Mindarus to a
+distance from the harbor, while the other two divisions stole between him
+and the city, and thus cut off his retreat. A battle ensued, in which
+Mindarus was slain, the Spartans and their Persian allies routed, and the
+entire Peloponnesian fleet captured, except the Syracusan ships, which
+Hermocrates caused to be burnt.
+
+=199.= This victory restored to the Athenians the control of the
+Propontis and the trade of the Euxine. Ships laden with corn now entered
+Piræus, bearing relief to the hungry poor, and discouragement to King
+Agis, who still held the heights of Decelea, in the vain hope of starving
+the city into surrender.
+
+Pharnabazus, meanwhile, was aiding the Spartans by every means in his
+power. He fed and clothed, armed and paid their seamen, allowed them to
+cut timber in the forests of Mount Ida, and build their ships at his
+docks of Antandros. Through his assistance, Chalcedon, on the Bosphorus,
+was enabled to hold out two years against Alcibiades. It surrendered at
+last, in 408. Selym´bria and Byzantium were taken about the same time.
+
+=200.= These repeated successes restored the credit of Alcibiades, and,
+in the spring of 407, he was welcomed back to his native city. All the
+people met him at Piræus, with as much joy and enthusiasm as they had
+escorted him thither, eight years before, when sailing for the fatal
+expedition to Sicily. He protested his innocence before the Senate
+and Assembly. His sentence was reversed by acclamation, his property
+restored, the curse revoked, and he was made general, with unlimited
+powers. Before his departure, with the large fleet and army which were
+now at his disposal, he resolved to atone to Demeter for whatever slight
+had been thrown upon her by his alleged sacrilege. The sacred procession
+from Athens to Eleusis had been intermitted these seven years, owing to
+the nearness of the Spartan troops. Alcibiades now delayed his departure,
+in order to escort and protect the participants.
+
+[Sidenote: B. C. 407.]
+
+=201.= The arrival of two new officers upon the Asiatic field of war
+turned the scale against Athens. The one was Cyrus, a son of the Persian
+king; the other was Lysander, the new Spartan _navarchus_, who took
+command of the Peloponnesian fleet at Ephesus. These two made common
+cause, and together took measures for severe and unrelenting war against
+the Athenians. The gold which the Persian prince lavished without
+stint, the Spartan applied to increasing the wages of his seamen. By
+this well-timed liberality, he drew over great numbers of men from the
+opposing fleet, and rendered even those who did not desert, discontented
+and mutinous.
+
+=202.= Alcibiades arrived with his fleet to find the situation less
+favorable than he had hoped. The Spartan troops were better paid and
+equipped than his own, and to raise funds he resorted to levying forced
+contributions on friendly states. During his absence on one of these
+forays, the fleet became engaged in battle with the Spartans, and was
+defeated with considerable loss. The Athenians began to perceive that
+eight years’ exile and two or three years’ good behavior, had not altered
+the character of the man, but that he was as dissolute, fickle, and
+unscrupulous as ever. They dismissed him from his command, and appointed
+ten generals, with Conon at their head.
+
+[Sidenote: B. C. 406.]
+
+=203.= At the same time that Conon arrived to take command of the
+Athenians, Cal´licrat´idas succeeded Lysander as _navarchus_. He found
+an empty treasury and a cold reception, alike from his own countrymen
+and the Persians, whom Lysander had purposely prejudiced against him.
+Cyrus refused to see or aid him. Callicratidas now took bolder counsel.
+He sailed to Miletus, and urged its citizens to throw off the Persian
+alliance. Many rich men came forward with generous contributions of
+money, with which he equipped fifty new triremes, and sailed to Lesbos
+with a fleet twice as numerous as that of the Athenians.
+
+=204.= He had a battle with Conon in the harbor of Mytilene, in which
+the Athenians lost nearly half their ships, and only saved the rest by
+drawing them ashore under the walls of the town. Callicratidas then
+blockaded the city by sea and land; and Cyrus, perceiving his success,
+assisted him with supplies of money. Great efforts were made at Athens,
+as soon as the condition of Conon was known. A large fleet was sent out
+in a few days, and being reinforced by the allies at Samos, arrived
+at the south-eastern extremity of Lesbos, numbering 150 vessels.
+Callicratidas left fifty ships to continue the blockade, and sailed to
+meet his enemy.
+
+BATTLE OF ARGINUSÆ. A long and obstinate combat followed; but
+Callicratidas was at length thrown overboard and drowned, and victory
+declared for the Athenians. The Spartans had lost seventy-seven vessels,
+and their fleet at Mytilene hastily withdrew, leaving the harbor open for
+the escape of Conon.
+
+[Sidenote: B. C. 405.]
+
+=205.= At the beginning of the next year, Lysander was again placed
+in command of the Spartan fleet. His numbers being still inferior, he
+avoided an engagement, but he crossed the Ægean to the coast of Attica,
+for a personal Consultation with Agis, and thence proceeded to the
+Hellespont, where he commenced the siege of Lampsacus. The Athenian fleet
+followed, but arrived too late to save the town. Conon stationed himself,
+however, at Ægos-Potami (Goat’s River), on the northern side of the
+channel, with the intention of bringing the Spartan to an engagement. The
+Athenians were upon a barren plain; while the Spartans, better situated
+and abundantly supplied with provisions, were in no haste to begin the
+battle. Alcibiades, who was living near in his own castle, saw the danger
+of his countrymen, and advised their generals to remove to Sestus, but
+his counsels were resented as impertinence; and attributing the Spartan
+delay to cowardice, the Athenians became every day more neglectful of
+discipline.
+
+[Sidenote: B. C. 405, Sept.]
+
+=206.= BATTLE OF ÆGOS-POTAMI. At length Lysander, seizing a moment when
+the Athenian seamen were scattered over the country, crossed the strait
+with his entire force. Only a dozen vessels, in Conon’s personal command,
+were in condition for battle; and the whole fleet, with the exception of
+the flag-ship, the sacred Par´alus, and eight or ten others, fell into
+the Spartan possession without a blow. Three or four thousand prisoners,
+including officers and men, were massacred, in retaliation for recent
+cruelties of the Athenians in the treatment of their captives. The defeat
+at Ægos-Potami was the death-blow of the Athenian empire. Chalcedon,
+Byzantium, and Mytilene soon surrendered; and all the Athenian towns,
+except that of Samos, fell without resistance into the hands of the
+Spartans. Popular governments were every-where overthrown, and a new form
+of oligarchy was established, consisting of ten citizens, with a Spartan
+officer, called a _harmost_, at their head.
+
+=207.= The news of the great calamity arrived in the night at Piræus. A
+cry of sorrow and despair spread instantly from the port to the city,
+as each man passed the terrible tidings to his neighbor. “That night no
+man slept;”[52] and in the morning the Assembly was called, to consider
+how the existence of the city might be prolonged. The situation was
+desperate. Even though no hostile force should approach Athens, Lysander,
+by holding the Euxine, could effectually reduce it to starvation. The
+number of citizens was so diminished, that even criminals could not be
+spared from public service. All prisoners were released, except a few
+murderers and desperate villains; private offenses were forgotten in
+the common danger, and all Athenians united in a solemn oath of mutual
+forgiveness.
+
+[Sidenote: B. C. 405, Nov.]
+
+=208.= Two months after the defeat, Lysander appeared at Ægina with
+an overwhelming naval force; and, at the same time, the Peloponnesian
+army encamped in the groves of Academia, near the gates of Athens. Yet,
+though some of the people were already dying of hunger, their spirit was
+not broken; and when the Spartan ephors proposed peace on condition of
+the destruction of the Long Walls, a senator was imprisoned for merely
+discussing the acceptance of these terms. When, at last, the Athenians
+sent offers of capitulation, three months were wasted in vain debate
+before the terms could be settled. The Thebans and Corinthians insisted
+that no conditions should be granted, but that the very name of Athens
+should be blotted out, her site become a desert, and her people be sold
+into slavery. The Spartans, with more generosity, refused to “put out one
+of the eyes of Greece,” or to enslave a people which had rendered such
+services to the whole Hellenic race in the great crisis of the Persian
+wars.
+
+It was finally agreed that the Long Walls and the fortifications of
+Piræus should be destroyed, the ships of war surrendered, all exiles
+restored to their rights of citizenship, and all the foreign possessions
+of Athens relinquished. These hard conditions were executed with needless
+insolence. Lysander himself presided at the demolition of the walls; and
+the work, which was rendered very difficult by the solidity of their
+construction, was turned into a sort of festal celebration. A chorus of
+flute-players and dancers, wreathed with flowers, animated the workmen
+at their toil; and as the massive walls of Pericles fell, stone by
+stone, shouts of triumph arose from the army of destroyers that this day
+witnessed the dawn of the liberties of Greece.
+
+[Sidenote: B. C. 477-404.]
+
+=209.= The Athenian supremacy had lasted seventy-three years from the
+confederation at Delos. The power which had been intrusted to the
+imperial city for the common defense, had, in some cases, been made to
+bear heavily on the subject allies, and her later history is stained
+by many acts of cruelty. But the true empire of Athens has never been
+overthrown; for, through poetry, art, and philosophy, she still rules the
+minds of men with a power which has never been surpassed.
+
+
+RECAPITULATION.
+
+    The rivals, subjects, and enemies of Athens united to hasten
+    her fall; and to this end Sparta promised to the Persians
+    Thessaly, Bœotia, the islands of the Ægean, and the coast of
+    Asia Minor. Alcibiades partly neutralized the Spartan influence
+    with the satraps, and secured an oligarchical revolution in
+    Athens as the price of his efforts in her favor. Through his
+    aid the Athenians gained several great naval victories in the
+    northern Ægean, which restored to them the corn-trade of the
+    Euxine, and relieved the famine in their besieged city. The
+    gold of Cyrus the Younger, and the skill of Lysander, again
+    turned the tide against the Athenians, who were twice defeated;
+    and, though afterward triumphant near the Arginusæ, received
+    a final and disastrous overthrow at Ægos-Potami, which ended
+    their supremacy in Greece. The subject towns fell into the
+    power of the Spartans; and, the following spring, Athens itself
+    was surrendered to Lysander, and its Long Walls destroyed.
+
+
+SPARTAN SUPREMACY.
+
+=210.= Sparta, in alliance with Persia, now became the leading state
+in Greece; and all the cities yielded to her influence, by abolishing
+their free governments and setting up oligarchies in their stead. Athens
+herself received a thoroughly Spartan constitution. A provisional
+committee of five, called ephors, invited Lysander from Samos to preside
+over the reorganization of Athens. Under his direction, thirty officers
+were appointed for the government of the city, who have always been known
+in history as the “Thirty Tyrants.”
+
+[Sidenote: B. C. 401.]
+
+=211.= Critias was their chief. Having been banished formerly by a vote
+of the people, he now wreaked his vengeance with unsparing cruelty on the
+best and noblest citizens. Blood flowed daily and fines, imprisonments,
+and confiscations were the events of every hour. By the advice of
+Theram´enes, who was the head of the more moderate party, three thousand
+citizens were chosen from the adherents of the Thirty, whose sanction was
+required for important proceedings. But all, except this enfranchised
+number, were placed beyond the protection of the law, and might be put
+to death, at the word of the tyrants, without even a show of trial. A
+list was made of those who were destined to death, and any of the ruling
+party might add to it such names as either avarice or hatred suggested to
+him. The wealthiest citizens were, of course, the first victims, for the
+estate of the murdered man went to his accuser. Theramenes, in his turn,
+was offered a wealthy alien to destroy and plunder, but he indignantly
+rejected the proposal. This implied protest against the reign of terror
+cost him his life. He was denounced as a public enemy, his name stricken
+from the roll of the Thirty, and from that of the Three Thousand, and
+he was ordered to instant execution. He sprang to the altar in the
+senate-house; but fear of divine vengeance had disappeared, together with
+humanity and justice, from the rulers of Athens. He was dragged away to
+prison, and condemned to drink the hemlock.
+
+=212.= The tide was already turning, both in the ill-fated city and
+throughout Greece. Athens, in her humiliation, no longer excited the fear
+or jealousy of her former allies; while Sparta, instead of making good
+her assumed title of “Liberator of the Greeks,” was setting up a new
+empire more oppressive than that of her rival. Even in Sparta itself, the
+pride and harshness of Lysander excited disgust, and the Thirty Tyrants
+at Athens were universally regarded as the tools of his scheming ambition.
+
+The Athenian exiles, who had been biding their time, now issued from
+Thebes, under the lead of Thrasybu´lus, and seized the fortress of
+Phy´le, in the mountain barrier of Attica, on the road to the capital.
+The tyrants, with the Spartan garrison of the Acropolis and the Three
+Thousand, marched out to attack them, but were repulsed with spirit, and
+a timely snow-storm broke up their attempt to besiege the fortress, and
+drove them back to the city. Foreseeing their expulsion, the Thirty now
+provided for themselves a place of refuge by another horrid outrage. They
+caused all the inhabitants of Salamis and Eleusis, who were capable of
+bearing arms, to be brought as prisoners to Athens, and the towns to be
+occupied by garrisons in their own interest. Then filling the Odeon with
+Spartan soldiers and their three thousand adherents, they extorted from
+this assembly a vote for the immediate massacre of the prisoners.
+
+[Sidenote: B. C. 403.]
+
+=213.= Thrasybulus, supported by the indignation of the people,
+now marched with a thousand men to Piræus, seized the port without
+opposition, and fortified himself upon its castle-hill, Munych´ia. The
+whole Lacedæmonian party in Athens marched against him, and was defeated
+with considerable loss, in which must be reckoned the death of Critias.
+The more moderate party now gained ascendancy; the Thirty were deposed
+after a reign of eight months, and ten less atrocious rulers were
+elected in their place. The more violent members of the Thirty retired
+to Eleusis, and both parties sent envoys to Sparta asking aid. Lysander
+again entered Athens with an army, while his brother blockaded Piræus
+with a fleet.
+
+At this point, however, Lysander was superseded, and the Spartan king,
+Pausanias, after being first repulsed, but afterward victorious over
+Thrasybulus, entered upon negotiations for peace. Amnesty was decreed
+for all past offenses, except those of the Thirty, the Eleven,[53]
+and the Ten. The exiles were restored, and Thrasybulus with his
+comrades now marched in solemn procession from Piræus, to present their
+thank-offerings to Athena on the Acropolis. In a subsequent assembly
+of the people, all the acts of the Thirty Tyrants were annulled, the
+archons, judges, and Senate of Five Hundred were restored, and a revised
+code of the laws of Draco and Solon was ordered. Thrasybulus and his
+party were rewarded with wreaths of olive for their rescue of the city.
+
+[Sidenote: B. C. 399.]
+
+=214.= DEATH OF SOCRATES. Though humbled and reduced from their former
+greatness, the Athenians now rejoiced in the restoration of their
+ancient laws. Their city, their temples, and all their old customs and
+beliefs became doubly dear and sacred, from the perils through which
+they had passed. The worst effect of this conservative reaction was the
+condemnation and death of Socrates. This great philosopher belonged to no
+political party, and had opposed the extreme measures of both; but he had
+fought on many battle-fields, and had always used his power as a citizen
+in favor of justice and mercy. Critias had been his pupil, but when in
+power had hated and persecuted his former instructor. His impeachment
+now came from the opposite party. He was accused of despising the gods
+of Athens, of introducing a new worship, and of corrupting the Athenian
+youth. The dissoluteness of Alcibiades may have given some color to this
+charge, though it is certain that his youthful impieties and subsequent
+misconduct were in spite of his master’s instructions, not on account of
+them.
+
+Being called upon for his defense, Socrates replied that, so far from
+violating the state religion, he had constantly admonished his disciples
+not to depart from the established customs. He refused to be released
+on terms which required him to desist from teaching. To develop wisdom
+and virtue in the young had been the passion of his life. He claimed no
+wisdom of his own, but sought to draw out the thoughts of others to just
+conclusions. And if he could persuade any that the care of becoming every
+day wiser and better must take precedence of all other cares, he was sure
+that he had conferred the greatest possible benefit. The high tone of
+his defense only irritated his judges, and he was condemned to death by
+poison.
+
+The Paralus had now gone on its sacred yearly mission to the isle of
+Delos, and no execution could take place until its return. The thirty
+days thus spent by Socrates in prison were filled with inspiring converse
+with his friends. He spoke cheerfully of the past and the future, and
+expressed his immovable conviction of the immortality of the soul.
+His last request was that a cock should be sacrificed in his name to
+Æscula´pius,[54] an offering which persons were accustomed to make on
+their recovery from illness—by this common symbol testifying to all the
+people that he considered death as a joyful release from a state of
+imperfection and disease. When the appointed moment arrived, he drank the
+hemlock and calmly expired.
+
+[Sidenote: B. C. 402.]
+
+[Sidenote: B. C. 401.]
+
+=215.= INVASION OF ELIS. The Eleans were among the first to feel the
+unchecked power of Sparta. As guardians of the sacred grove at Olympia,
+they had excluded the Spartans from the games at the time when the
+Athenians appeared, with such magnificence, under the direction of
+Alcibiades, and they had borne arms against them, in alliance with the
+Argives and Mantineans (B. C. 420-416). They had crowned their insults by
+ejecting King Agis from their temple, when he had come with sacrifices
+to consult the oracle. Agis now demanded satisfaction, which the Eleans
+refused to give, and he crossed their borders with a considerable force.
+An earthquake alarmed his superstition, and he retired without any
+active hostility. But the next year renewed his courage. With a large
+number of allies, among whom even the Athenians appeared, he overran and
+plundered the sacred land, and performed by force the sacrifice which he
+had been prevented from offering peaceably. Thus victorious in his first
+expedition, the Spartan turned his vengeance upon the Messenians, who
+had been settled in his territory or upon the neighboring islands, and
+expelled or enslaved them all.
+
+[Sidenote: B. C. 398.]
+
+=216.= A year later King Agis died, and his brother Agesila´us
+received his crown. Agesilaus was brave, honest, and energetic, and
+the circumstances of his reign called for a constant exercise of these
+Spartan virtues. The aid rendered by the Lacedæmonians, in the revolt of
+Cyrus, had not escaped the notice of the Persian king; and Tissaphernes,
+who now possessed the satrapy of the rebellious prince, was instructed to
+drive them from all their cities on the Asiatic coasts. The first efforts
+of the Spartans, under inferior commanders, had but indifferent success,
+and Agesilaus himself prepared to assume the command in Asia.
+
+=217.= The headquarters of the Grecian forces were at Ephesus, where the
+army arrived B. C. 396. The winter was spent in busy preparations, which
+gave this wealthy city the appearance of one immense arsenal. In the
+spring of 395 he advanced upon Sardis, and put the Persian cavalry to
+flight. The plunder of their camp enriched the Spartans, who now ravaged
+the country almost under the eyes of Tissaphernes. But about this time
+the satrap fell into the power of Parysatis, the queen mother, who caused
+him to be beheaded for his former opposition to Cyrus. His successor,
+Tithraus´tes, proposed terms of peace, the Greek cities to remain
+independent, with the exception of a yearly tribute, the same that they
+had paid to Darius Hystaspes.
+
+[Sidenote: B. C. 395.]
+
+=218.= Meanwhile war had broken out in Greece between Thebes and Sparta,
+and the former had called in Athens, her ancient enemy and rival, with a
+promise to aid in restoring her lost supremacy. Lysander, who commanded
+the Spartan forces in Bœotia, was defeated and slain at Haliar´tus.
+Pausanias, arriving too late for his assistance, dared not return to
+Sparta with the army, but took refuge in the temple of Athena at Tegea;
+and being sentenced to death by his countrymen, passed the remainder of
+his days in the sanctuary. His son, Agesip´olis, succeeded to his throne.
+
+[Sidenote: B. C. 394-387.]
+
+=219.= THE CORINTHIAN WAR. Athens, Corinth, Argos, and Thebes now formed
+a close alliance against Sparta, which was soon strengthened by the
+addition of Eubœa, Acarnania, western Locris, Ambracia, Leucadia, and
+Chalcidice in Thrace. The allies assembled a large army at Corinth in
+the spring of 394, and it was proposed to march directly upon Sparta,
+and “burn the wasps in their nests before they could come forth to
+sting.” The Lacedæmonians, however, had advanced to Sicyon by the time
+the allies reached Nemea, and the latter were obliged to fall back for
+the protection of Corinth. The Spartans attacked them near the city and
+gained a victory, July, 394.
+
+[Sidenote: B. C. 394.]
+
+=220.= Agesilaus had been unwillingly recalled from his war against
+Persia, and now appeared in the north with a powerful army, in which
+were numbered Xenophon[55] and many of the Ten Thousand. On hearing
+of the victory of Corinth, the king exclaimed, “Alas for Greece! she
+has killed enough of her sons to have conquered all the barbarians.”
+Agesilaus advanced to Coronæa, where another battle was soon fought. The
+Thebans were at first successful, and, having routed the Orchomenians,
+pressed through to their camp in the rear. But while they were plundering
+this, Agesilaus had been victorious along the rest of the line, and had
+driven the allies to take refuge upon the slope of Mount Helicon. The
+Thebans, thus surrounded, had to sustain the whole weight of the Spartan
+attack, and no severer combat had ever been known in Grecian annals. They
+succeeded at last in rejoining their comrades, but the victory remained
+with Agesilaus.
+
+=221.= BATTLE OF CNIDUS. Their two successful battles of Corinth and
+Coronæa were far from compensating the Spartans for the disastrous defeat
+which befell them the same season at Cnidus. Conon, who had spent the
+seven years since his disgrace at Ægos-Potami, with Evagoras of Cyprus,
+now reappeared, in alliance with the ancient foe of Greece, against the
+bitter enemy and rival of Athens. Artaxerxes, perceiving the hatred which
+began to be felt against the growing power of Sparta, had sent envoys to
+the principal cities of Greece, to unite them in a league for resistance,
+while he dispatched a large sum of money to Conon, to equip a fleet among
+the Greeks and Phœnicians of the sea-board. In command of this fleet,
+Conon was blockaded at Caunus by the Spartan, Pharax; but a reinforcement
+arriving for the Persians, the blockading squadron withdrew to Rhodes.
+The people of that island had unwillingly endured so long the rule of the
+Spartans. They rose against Pharax, compelled him to depart, and placed
+themselves under the protection of Conon. This admiral immediately sailed
+to Rhodes and took possession of the island; then repaired to Babylon,
+where he obtained a still more liberal grant of money from Artaxerxes,
+for the active prosecution of the war.
+
+With the aid of Pharnabazus, who was joined with him in command, he
+equipped a powerful fleet and offered battle to Pisan´der, the Spartan
+admiral, off Cnidus, in Caria. The Persian force, consisting of Greeks
+and Phœnicians, was superior from the first, and especially when Pisander
+was deserted, in the course of the battle, by his Asiatic allies. He
+fought, however, with the bravery of a Spartan, until his death put an
+end to the contest. More than half the Spartan fleet was either captured
+or destroyed. As a result of this defeat, the Spartan empire fell even
+more rapidly than it had risen eight years before. Conon and Pharnabazus
+sailed from port to port, and were received as deliverers by all the
+Asiatic Greeks. The Spartan _harmosts_ every-where fled before their
+arrival. Abydus and the Thracian Chersonesus alone withstood the power of
+Athens and Persia.
+
+[Sidenote: B. C. 393.]
+
+=222.= The following spring, the fleet of Conon and Pharnabazus crossed
+the Ægean, laid waste the eastern borders of Laconia, and established
+an Athenian garrison on the island of Cythera. The Persian, by gold and
+promises, assured the allies, whom he met at Corinth, of his unfailing
+support against Sparta; and he employed the seamen of the fleet in
+rebuilding the Long Walls of Athens and the fortifications of the Piræus.
+The recent services of Conon more than erased the memory of his former
+disasters, and he was hailed by his countrymen as a second founder of
+Athens and restorer of her greatness.
+
+=223.= The war was henceforth carried on in the Corinthian territory,
+and the main object of the allies was to guard the three passes in the
+mountains which extend across the southern part of the isthmus. The most
+westerly of these was defended by the long walls which ran from Corinth
+to Lechæ´um; the other two, by strong garrisons of the allied troops.
+The Spartans were at Sicyon, whence they could easily ravage the fertile
+plain, and plunder the country-seats of the wealthy Corinthians. The
+aristocratic party in Corinth began to complain, and to sigh for their
+ancient alliance with Sparta. The ruling faction, on the other hand,
+invited a company of Argives into the city, and massacred a large number
+of their opponents. The aristocrats avenged themselves by admitting
+Praxi´tas, the Spartan leader, within their long walls, and a battle
+was fought within this confined space, in which the Corinthians were
+defeated. The Spartans destroyed a large portion of the walls, and,
+marching across the isthmus, captured two places on the Saronic Gulf.
+
+[Sidenote: B. C. 392.]
+
+The Athenians, alarmed by the door being thus thrown open for the
+invasion of their own territory, marched with a force of carpenters and
+masons to the isthmus, and aided the Corinthians to rebuild the walls.
+They were building, however, for their enemies; for the next summer,
+Agesilaus, with the Spartan fleet, gained possession not only of the
+walls, but the port of Lechæum. Several other towns on the Corinthian
+Gulf, with much booty and many captives, also fell into his possession.
+The Lacedæmonians now surrounded Corinth on all sides, and the Thebans,
+despairing of success for the allies, sent envoys demanding peace.
+
+=224.= While they were still in the presence of Agesilaus, he received
+news of an unprecedented and mortifying disaster. Iphicrates, the
+Athenian, had been for two years drilling a troop of mercenaries in a new
+system of tactics, which was intended to combine the advantages of both
+heavy and light-armed troops. He had proved their efficiency in several
+trials, and was now ready to test them upon the Spartan battalion, which
+was considered almost invincible. The Spartans were returning to the camp
+at Lechæum—having escorted their Amyclæan comrades some distance on their
+way homeward to celebrate a religious festival—when they were attacked,
+in flank and rear, with arrows and javelins. Burdened with their heavy
+armor, they were unable to cope with their agile antagonists, while their
+long pikes were of little use against the short swords of the _peltasts_.
+They broke at length in confusion, and many were driven into the sea,
+followed by their assailants, who wrestled with and slew them in the
+water.
+
+[Sidenote: B. C. 390.]
+
+=225.= The war in Asia went on with varying success. Thimbron, the
+Spartan, was defeated and slain by the Persian, Struthas, with the total
+loss of his army of 8,000 men. About the same time an Athenian squadron,
+which was going to assist Evagoras against Persia, was captured by a
+Spartan fleet. Thrasybulus was then sent with a larger naval force, with
+which he re-established Athenian power in the Propontis, and re-imposed
+the toll anciently collected by Athens on all vessels passing out of
+the Euxine. In the midst of this expedition Thrasybulus was slain. The
+Spartans, by renewed exertions, again became for a time masters of the
+straits; but Iphicrates, with his peltasts, surprised their leader among
+the passes of Mount Ida, and gained a decisive victory, which restored
+the Athenian supremacy in that region.
+
+[Sidenote: B. C. 387.]
+
+=226.= PEACE OF ANTALCIDAS. The Spartans now made an effort toward
+peace by sending Antalcidas to the Persian court. The king accepted
+their propositions, and furnished means to enforce them. A large fleet,
+commanded by Antalcidas and Tiribazus, visited the Hellespont, and by
+cutting off the supplies of corn from the Euxine, threatened Athens
+with famine. All the states were now ready to listen to terms, and in a
+congress of deputies Tiri´bazus presented the following propositions:
+“King Artaxerxes thinks it just that the cities in Asia, and the islands
+of Clazomenæ and Cyprus should belong to him. He thinks it just to leave
+all the other Grecian cities, both small and great, independent, except
+Lemnos, Imbros, and Scyros, which are to belong to Athens, as of old.”
+The Thebans at first objected, but being threatened with war by the
+Spartans, at length took the oath. The terms which thus prostrated Greece
+at the feet of Persia, were engraven on tablets of stone and set up in
+every temple.
+
+
+RECAPITULATION.
+
+    The second period of Spartan supremacy was signalized by the
+    abolition of free governments throughout Greece. Athens, under
+    the Thirty Tyrants, suffered for eight months a reign of
+    terror. Thrasybulus, with the Athenian exiles, effected the
+    expulsion of the tyrants, the restoration of free government,
+    and a conservative reaction which occasioned, among other
+    results, the execution of Socrates. The Spartans plundered
+    the sacred land of Elis, and expelled or enslaved all the
+    Messenians who remained upon their soil. Agesilaus, succeeding
+    his brother as king of Sparta, became involved in war with
+    Persia. In the contest with Thebes, Lysander was killed,
+    and the king Pausanias disgraced. During the Corinthian War
+    which followed, Sparta was victorious at Corinth and Coronæa,
+    but suffered a disastrous overthrow from the Persian fleet
+    under Conon, in the battle of Cnidus, which resulted in the
+    sudden downfall of her supremacy. The Long Walls of Athens
+    and the fortifications of the Piræus were rebuilt, under the
+    superintendence of Conon. The Peace of Antalcidas gave to the
+    Persian king a controlling voice in Grecian affairs, with the
+    sovereignty of Asiatic Greece, and of the islands of Cyprus and
+    Clazomenæ.
+
+
+SUPREMACY OF THEBES.
+
+[Sidenote: B. C. 386.]
+
+=227.= The Spartan hatred of Thebes was not allayed by the return of
+peace. To annoy the latter city, Platæa[56] was rebuilt, and as many
+as possible of its former citizens brought back. An expedition against
+Olynthus gave occasion for a more decided act of hostility. Phϫbidas, on
+his march through Bœotia, happened to approach Thebes on a festal day,
+when the citadel was occupied only by women. Aided by some citizens who
+were in secret alliance with Sparta, he seized the Cadmea, had the chief
+of the patriotic party put to death on a false charge, and effected a
+revolution in the government which made Thebes only a subservient ally of
+Sparta. The Lacedæmonians pretended to join in the general indignation of
+Greece at this outrage; but though they dismissed Phœbidas, they kept the
+Cadmea.
+
+[Sidenote: B. C. 382.]
+
+=228.= OLYNTHIAN WAR. The war in Macedonia was now prosecuted with the
+aid of Thebes. Olynthus, in the Chalcidian peninsula, had become the
+head of a powerful confederacy of Grecian cities; but Acan´thus and
+Apollo´nia refused to join it, and applied to Sparta for help. Amyn´tas,
+king of Macedonia, took their part, and joined his troops with those of
+Eudamidas. Olynthus, by means of its excellent cavalry, held out bravely
+for four years; but at last it fell, and the league was dissolved. The
+Macedonian ports returned into subjection to Amyntas, while the Greek
+cities joined the Spartan alliance. Sparta was now leagued on all
+sides with the enemies of Greece: with the Persians, with Dionysius of
+Syracuse, and with Macedon. By the destruction of the Olynthian League,
+she had removed the chief obstacle to the Macedonian power, which was
+soon to overthrow the freedom of the Greeks.
+
+[Sidenote: B. C. 379.]
+
+=229.= Thebes remained three years in the control of the Lacedæmonian
+party. But the citizens were discontented, and a company of exiles
+at Athens were awaiting an opportunity of vengeance. Among them was
+Pelop´idas, a noble and wealthy youth, who had already distinguished
+himself by his patriotism. He was the ardent friend of Epam´inon´das, a
+Theban of greater age and still more exalted virtue than himself. A plan
+was now formed among the exiles for the deliverance of Thebes. Pelopidas
+was its leader; but Epaminondas at first held back, because the execution
+of the plot required deceit, and the possible shedding of innocent blood.
+He was a strict Pythagorean; and so pure were his principles, that he was
+never known to trifle with the truth even in jest, or to sacrifice it for
+any interest.
+
+=230.= Phyl´lidas, secretary of the Theban government, was in the plot,
+and took a leading part in its execution. He invited to supper the two
+polemarchs, Ar´chias and Philip´pus, with the principal Spartan leaders;
+and when they were sufficiently stupefied with eating and drinking,
+he proposed to introduce some Theban ladies. Before these entered, a
+messenger brought a letter to Archias, and begged his attention, as it
+contained a matter of serious importance. But the polemarch only thrust
+the letter under the cushions of his couch, saying, “Serious matters
+tomorrow!”
+
+Pelopidas and his friends, who had arrived in the city disguised as
+hunters, now entered the banquet-room in the long white veils and festive
+garb of women. They were loudly welcomed by the half-drunken guests, and
+dispersed themselves with apparent carelessness among the company; but
+as one of the Spartan lords attempted to lift the veil of the person who
+was addressing him, he received a mortal wound. It was the signal for a
+general attack. Swords were drawn from beneath the silken garments, and
+no Spartan left the room alive. The prisons were now opened, and five
+hundred Thebans, who had been immured there for their love of freedom,
+were added to the armed force of the revolutionists. As day dawned,
+all citizens who valued liberty were summoned to the market-place.
+A joyful assembly was held, the first since the Spartan usurpation.
+The Lacedæmonians in the citadel were besieged, and their expected
+reinforcements being cut off, they speedily surrendered.
+
+=231.= It was now the depth of winter, but when the news arrived at
+Sparta, instant preparations were made for war. Cleombrotus led an army
+into Bœotia, and Athens was called to account for having sheltered the
+exiles. Unable to enter upon war with Sparta, the Athenians consented to
+sacrifice their two generals who had rendered the most efficient aid to
+the Thebans. One was executed, and the other, having fled, was sentenced
+to banishment. The Thebans feared that they should be left to fight
+single-handed against Sparta. In order to compel Athens to take part
+in the war, they bribed Spho´drias, the Spartan general, to invade her
+territory. He entered Attica in the night and committed various ravages,
+but retired the next day. The Spartan government disclaimed all knowledge
+of the affair, and brought Sphodrias to trial for it; but, through the
+influence of Agesilaus, he was acquitted. Athens immediately made an
+active alliance with Thebes, and a declaration of war against her ancient
+rival.
+
+[Sidenote: B. C. 378.]
+
+=232.= A new confederacy was now formed on the plan of that of Delos,
+including, in its most prosperous period, seventy cities. Athens was
+the head, but the independence of the members was carefully guarded. A
+congress at Athens regulated the share of each in the general expenses.
+The fortifications of Piræus were completed, new ships of war were built,
+and all the allies hastened forward their contingents of troops. In
+Thebes, the Sacred Band was formed—a heavy-armed battalion, consisting
+of three hundred chosen citizens of the noblest families, bound to each
+other by ties of the closest friendship. Though Pelopidas was bœotarch,
+Epaminondas had the most prominent share in the drill and discipline of
+the troops.
+
+[Sidenote: B. C. 378-376.]
+
+[Sidenote: B. C. 375.]
+
+During two summers the army of Agesilaus invaded the country, and
+carried its depredations to the very gates of Thebes. The third year the
+Thebans held the passes of Mount Cithæron, and kept out the invaders.
+The Spartans were no longer successful at sea. They were thoroughly
+defeated off Naxos by the Athenians, who thus regained their maritime
+empire in the East; while, in the western seas, Corcyra, Cephallenia, and
+the neighboring tribes on the mainland joined the Athenian alliance. The
+Thebans were no less victorious on land. During the two years that they
+were free from Spartan invasion, most of the Bœotian cities submitted to
+their control. In 374 B. C., all Spartans were expelled, free governments
+were restored to every city, except Orchomenus and Chæronea, and the
+Bœotian League was revived. The Phocians, who had, twenty years before,
+invited the Spartans into central Greece, were now the objects of
+vengeance, and not the less because the treasures of Delphi would be the
+prize of the victor. But Cleombrotus came to the aid of the Phocians, and
+the aggression was checked.
+
+[Sidenote: B. C. 374.]
+
+=233.= The Athenians had now various reasons for enmity against Thebes,
+and messengers were sent to Sparta with proposals of peace. They were
+eagerly accepted; but the inopportune restoration of the Zacynthian
+exiles by Timo´theus, son of Conon, at this crisis, broke off the
+negotiations, and war was renewed. It was carried on in the western
+sea, with great expense and no gain to either party; the main object of
+the Spartans being the conquest of Corcyra, and, of the Athenians, the
+protection of its independence. At length all parties were weary of war,
+and a general congress was appointed at Sparta in the spring of 371.
+
+=234.= PEACE OF CAL´LIAS.[57] It was agreed that the Spartan garrisons
+should be withdrawn from every city, and independence secured to all.
+Athens and her allies signed the treaty separately, but Sparta took the
+oaths for the whole Lacedæmonian Confederacy. When the Thebans were
+called upon, Epaminondas refused to sign except for the whole Bœotian
+League, claiming that Thebes was as rightfully the sovereign city of
+Bœotia, as Sparta of Laconia. He defended his view in a speech of great
+eloquence; but Agesilaus was violently incensed. Peace was concluded
+between the other states, but Thebes and Sparta continued at war.
+
+=235.= The courage of the Thebans seemed to the rest of the Greeks
+like madness, and it was believed that a very few weeks would see them
+crushed by the overwhelming power of Sparta. But Thebes now possessed
+the greatest general whom Greece ever produced. Knowing his own power,
+and the value of those new tactics which were destined to supersede the
+Spartan system, he revived the drooping confidence of his countrymen,
+reasoned down their evil omens or invented good ones, and by his own
+greatness of soul sustained the spirit of a whole nation.
+
+[Sidenote: B. C. 371.]
+
+=236.= BATTLE OF LEUC´TRA. Cleombrotus, the Spartan, was already in
+Phocis with a considerable army. He began with energy by seizing Creusis,
+on the Crissæan Gulf, with twelve Theban vessels which lay in the harbor,
+thus providing at once a base of supplies and a line of retreat. He then
+marched along the Gulf of Corinth into Bœotia, and encamped upon the
+plains of Leuctra. Three of the seven bœotarchs were so much alarmed as
+to propose retreating upon Thebes, and sending their wives and children
+for safety to Athens; but their plan was overruled. Epaminondas and
+Pelopidas were alert and cheerful. Though outnumbered by the Spartans,
+they so arranged their forces as to be always superior at the actual
+point of contact, instead of engaging all at once, which had been the
+uniform method in Grecian warfare. The Theban left was a dense column,
+fifty deep, led by the Sacred Band. This was hurled upon the Lacedæmonian
+right, which contained their choicest troops, led by Cleombrotus himself;
+while the Theban center and right, facing the Spartan allies, were kept
+out of action. The onset of the Thebans was irresistible. Never had more
+furious fighting been seen on any Grecian battle-field. The Spartans
+maintained their ancient virtue; but Cleombrotus was mortally wounded,
+his whole division were driven to their camp, and the victory of the
+Thebans was complete. The allies of the Spartans, many of whom were
+present more through fear than choice, scarcely regretted the result of
+the battle.
+
+At Sparta the fatal news was not permitted to interrupt the festival
+then in progress. All signs of mourning were forbidden, except on the
+part of those whose relatives had survived the defeat. The disaster was,
+nevertheless, the greatest that had ever befallen Sparta. Her influence
+was destroyed, even over the Peloponnesian cities. Her dependencies north
+of the Corinthian Gulf were divided between the Thebans and Jason, tyrant
+of Pheræ, in Thessaly, a man of singular talent and unbounded ambition,
+who aimed at the sovereignty of all Greece. The Thebans had courted his
+alliance, but they began to be alarmed by the extent of his projects,
+and all Greece was relieved when he was assassinated in 370. The Spartan
+sovereignty, which had lasted thirty-four years since the battle of
+Ægos-Potami, now gave way to the THEBAN SUPREMACY (B. C. 371-362).
+
+=237.= The Mantineans seized the occasion to revenge their former wrongs,
+and besought the aid of Epaminondas. He entered Arcadia with an army
+near the end of the year 370, and was joined by Argives and Eleans, who
+increased his number to 70,000 men. By the entreaties of his allies, he
+marched into Laconia, and advanced upon Sparta itself. During all the
+centuries that the fame of Spartan valor had held Greece and Asia in awe,
+the Spartan women had never seen an enemy in arms, and the unwalled city
+was now filled with terror. But the energy of old King Agesilaus was
+equal to its defense. He repulsed the cavalry of Epaminondas, who retired
+down the valley of the Eurotas, burning and plundering as he went, and
+then returned to Arcadia.
+
+=238.= The main objects of his expedition were yet to be fulfilled.
+A union of Arcadian towns had already been formed, which Epaminondas
+wished to organize and strengthen. Lest jealousy should be excited by the
+choice of any existing place as capital of the league, a new city, called
+Megalop´olis, was built, and peopled by colonists from forty towns. Here
+a congress of deputies, called the “Ten Thousand,” was to be regularly
+convened; and a standing army of deputies from the various cities was
+also raised.
+
+=239.= A still more cherished plan was the restoration of the Messenians.
+For three hundred years this noble race had been fugitive and exiled,
+while its lands were in the possession of the Lacedæmonians. The exiles
+were now recalled, by the letters of Epaminondas, from the shores of
+Italy, Sicily, Africa, and Asia, and eagerly sprang to arms for the
+recovery of their ancient seats. The citadel of Ithome was fortified
+anew, and the town of Messe´ne, which arose upon the western slope of
+the mountain, was protected by strong walls. The Messenian territories
+extended southward to the gulf which bore their name, and northward to
+Elis and Arcadia.
+
+[Sidenote: B. C. 369.]
+
+=240.= Common jealousy of Thebes now led to a closer alliance
+between Athens and Sparta. Their forces were united in guarding the
+mountain-passes of the isthmus, in order to prevent another invasion of
+the Peloponnesus. Epaminondas, however, broke their line by defeating
+a Spartan division, and Sicyon deserted the Spartan for the Theban
+alliance. The Thebans were, in their turn, defeated in an attack upon
+Corinth, and their enemies were strengthened by a squadron which arrived
+at Lechæum, from Dionysius of Syracuse, bearing two thousand auxiliaries
+from Gaul and Spain.
+
+[Sidenote: B. C. 368.]
+
+=241.= THE TEARLESS BATTLE. The Arcadians, meanwhile, rejoicing in
+their newly acquired power, became ambitious to share the sovereignty
+with Thebes, as Athens did with Sparta. Under their leader, Lycome´des,
+who had first proposed the league, they gained several advantages in
+the west, and completed the overthrow of the Spartan power in the
+Messenian part of the peninsula. In a later enterprise, they were routed,
+however, with great slaughter by the Spartans, who lost not a man in the
+engagement, and gave it, therefore, the name of the “Tearless Battle.”
+The Thebans did not mourn this defeat of their allies, which had the
+effect of curbing their pride, and showing their need of protection from
+the sovereign state.
+
+The same year the Thebans, under Pelopidas, organized a league among the
+cities of Thessaly, and formed an alliance with Macedonia. Among the
+hostages sent from the Macedonian court was the young prince, Philip,
+son of Amyntas, now fifteen years of age, who was destined to act an
+important part in the later history of Greece.
+
+=242.= In the years 367 and 366, the Thebans obtained from the Persian
+king that sanction of their power which the peace of Antalcidas had
+rendered necessary, or, at least, customary in Greece. Artaxerxes
+recognized the Hellenic supremacy of Thebes, and the independence
+of Messene and Amphip´olis; decided a dispute between the Arcadians
+and Eleans in favor of the latter, and commanded Athens to reduce
+her navy to a peace footing. This royal rescript naturally provoked
+a violent opposition among the states of Greece; and when Pelopidas
+visited Thessaly to obtain compliance with its terms, he was seized and
+imprisoned by Alexander of Pheræ. The Thebans instantly sent a force to
+recover or avenge their ambassador. But, unhappily, Epaminondas was now
+degraded from command; the army was defeated, and barely escaped total
+destruction. The great general was serving as a private in the ranks; he
+was called by his comrades to be their leader, and conducted them safely
+home. He then received the command of a second expedition, which secured
+the release of Pelopidas.
+
+[Sidenote: B. C. 363.]
+
+Two years later, Pelopidas himself conducted an army against Alexander,
+and gained a great victory over him at Cyn´oceph´alæ. Rage at the sight
+of his old enemy overcame his prudence, and he fell furiously fighting
+in the midst of Alexander’s guards. The Thebans felt more grief at his
+death than joy in the victory, but they did not fail to follow it up with
+a fresh army, which stripped Alexander of all his possessions except
+the city of Pheræ, and established Theban supremacy throughout northern
+Greece.
+
+=243.= The war in the Peloponnesus was now varied by an act of sacrilege.
+The Arcadians seized the Sacred Grove at Olympia during the year of the
+festival, expelled the Eleans from their supervision of the games, and
+installed the Pisatans in their place. A large army of the Arcadians
+and their allies was present to enforce this irregular proceeding. The
+Eleans came up in the midst of the games, supported by their allies, the
+Achæans, and a battle was fought on the sacred ground. The very temple of
+Olympic Zeus became a fortress, and the gold and ivory statue by Phidias
+looked down upon a scene of unprecedented strife. The treasury of the
+shrine was despoiled by the invaders. Arcadia itself was divided by this
+impious act. The Mantineans refused all share in the spoils, and were
+on that account proclaimed traitors to the league. Peace was at length
+made with Elis, but two parties remained in Arcadia: the Mantineans, in
+alliance with Sparta; and the Tegeans, with the other towns which favored
+Thebes. Hostilities were frequent, and envoys were sent to Epaminondas
+demanding his intervention.
+
+=244.= In the summer of 362 B. C., the great general invaded Peloponnesus
+for the fourth and last time. At Tegea he was joined by his allies,
+while Agesilaus moved with a Spartan force toward Mantinea. Placed thus
+between the king and his capital, Epaminondas seized the occasion to make
+a sudden attack upon Sparta. Agesilaus heard of it in time to return,
+and though a battle was fought in the very streets of the capital, the
+invader was compelled to retire. With his usual swiftness, Epaminondas
+moved back to surprise Mantinea while the Spartan army was withdrawn. The
+citizens with their slaves were dispersed in the fields, for it was the
+time of harvest; but a troop of Athenian cavalry had just arrived, and,
+though tired and hungry, they succeeded in repulsing the Thebans.
+
+=245.= BATTLE OF MANTINEA. It was now evident that a great battle
+must take place, and the elevated plain between Tegea and Mantinea,
+inclosed on every side by mountains, was the destined field. The
+Thebans, on arriving, laid down their arms, as if preparing to encamp;
+and the Spartans, inferring that they did not mean to fight, dispersed
+themselves in some confusion. Some were tending their horses, some
+unbuckling their breastplates, when they were surprised by the charge
+of the deep and heavy column of Bœotian troops, which Epaminondas had
+swiftly put in order for attack. The Spartans fought bravely, but under
+the disadvantage which disorder always occasions, they were unable to
+recover themselves at once. Epaminondas seized the moment to lead a band
+of chosen troops directly upon the enemy’s center. The Mantineans and
+Spartans turned and fled; but at this moment the Theban general fell,
+pierced with a mortal wound. His followers stood paralyzed with dismay,
+unable to pursue and reap the advantage he had prepared for them. The
+Spartans acknowledged themselves defeated, by requesting permission to
+bury their dead, but both armies erected trophies of victory.
+
+=246.= Epaminondas, with the spear-head in his breast, was carried off
+the field. He first assured himself that the battle was won, then tried
+to make a disposition of his command; but the two generals whom he would
+have chosen were already slain. “Then make peace,” was his last public
+command. The spear-head was now removed, and with the rush of blood which
+followed it, his life passed away. No Greek ever more truly merited,
+by character and talent, the title “Great.” Many of the worthiest who
+succeeded him took him for their model; and even the Christian ages
+have seen none who better fulfilled the description of a brave knight,
+“without fear and without reproach.” The greatness of Thebes began and
+ended with his public career. After the fatal result of the battle of
+Mantinea, she fell to her former position.
+
+[Sidenote: B. C. 361.]
+
+=247.= Peace was made, leaving all parties in the same position as before
+the war. Agesilaus, untamed by his eighty years, sought a field of glory
+beyond the sea. Tachos, king of Egypt, had asked the aid of Sparta in
+his revolt against Persia. Agesilaus went to his assistance, at the head
+of a thousand heavy-armed troops. The appearance of the little, lame old
+man, utterly destitute of the retinue or splendor of a king, excited the
+ridicule of the Egyptians; but when he transferred his aid from Tachos
+to Nectan´abis, who had risen against him, the importance of the little
+Spartan was felt, for Nectanabis obtained the throne. Agesilaus did not
+live to bear back to Sparta his honors and rewards. He died on the road
+to Cyrene, and his body, embalmed in wax, was conveyed with great pomp
+to his native city. An ancient oracle had foretold that Sparta would
+lose her power under a lame sovereign. It was now fulfilled, but through
+no fault of the king. Agesilaus had all the virtues of his countrymen,
+without their common faults of avarice and deceit; and he added a warmth
+and tenderness in friendship which Spartans rarely possessed. He has been
+called “Sparta’s most perfect citizen and most consummate general, in
+many ways, perhaps, her greatest man.”
+
+=248.= THE SOCIAL WAR. Athens still maintained her wars in the north;
+by sea against Alexander of Pheræ, and by land against Macedonia and the
+Thracian princes. The second period of Athenian greatness reached its
+height in the year 358, when Eubœa, the Chersonesus, and Amphipolis were
+again subdued. In that year a serious revolt, called the Social War, was
+begun by Rhodes, Cos, Chios, and Byzantium. Sestus and other towns on
+the Hellespont joined in the quarrel, and Mauso´lus, king of Caria, sent
+aid to the insurgents. The war was inglorious and exhaustive to Athens.
+To obtain means of paying their sailors, the commanders aided Artabazus
+in his revolt against Persia, and thereby incurred the vengeance of the
+great king. Athens had to consent to the independence of the four rebel
+states, in order to avoid still greater losses and calamities. During the
+four years that her attention had been thus absorbed, Philip of Macedon
+had been able to grasp all her dependencies on the Thermaic Gulf, and
+thus to extend his power as far as the Peneus.
+
+[Sidenote: B. C. 357.]
+
+=249.= THE SACRED WAR. During the progress of the Social War, another
+fatal quarrel began in central Greece, through the enmity of Thebes
+and Phocis. Driven to fight for their existence, the Phocians seized
+the sacred treasures at Delphi, which enabled them to raise and
+maintain a large army of mercenaries, and even to bribe some of the
+neighboring states either to aid them or remain neutral. Their first
+general, Philome´lus, was defeated and slain at Titho´rea. His brother,
+Onomar´chus, who succeeded to his command, used the Delphian treasures
+with still less scruple, beside confiscating the property of all who
+opposed him. By these means he conquered Locris and Doris, invaded
+Bœotia, and captured Orchomenus.
+
+[Sidenote: B. C. 352.]
+
+=250.= Lyc´ophron, tyrant of Pheræ, now sought his aid against Philip of
+Macedon, whose increasing power pressed heavily upon Thessaly. Phaÿl´lus,
+who first led a force to the aid of Lycophron, was defeated; but
+Onomarchus himself marched into Thessaly, worsted the king in two pitched
+battles, and drove him from the country. He then returned into Bœotia,
+where he captured Coronæa, but was recalled into Thessaly by another
+invasion of Philip. This time his fortune changed; he was defeated,
+and, with many other fugitives, plunged into the sea, hoping to reach
+the Athenian ships which were lying off shore to watch the battle. He
+perished, and his body, falling into the hands of Philip, was crucified
+as a punishment of his sacrilege.
+
+=251.= This battle secured the ascendency of Philip in Thessaly. He
+established a more popular government in Pheræ, took and garrisoned
+Magnesia, and then advanced upon Thermopylæ. The Athenians anticipated
+the danger, and guarded the pass with a strong force. But the liberty of
+Greece was destined to be sacrificed to her internal dissensions. The
+Sacred War had continued eleven years, when the Thebans called in the
+aid of Philip to complete the destruction of Phocis. The Athenians now
+remained neutral, and Philip passed Thermopylæ without opposition. In a
+short campaign he crushed Phocis, and was admitted as a member of the
+Amphictyonic Council, in the place of the conquered state.
+
+[Sidenote: B. C. 349.]
+
+=252.= Athens was now the only power in Greece capable of opposing the
+Macedonian king, and Athens was no longer possessed of a Miltiades, a
+Conon, or a Themistocles. A great orator, however, had arisen, and when
+Olynthus sent envoys to implore aid against the invader, who was now
+attacking the Chalcidian cities, the eloquence of Demosthenes aroused
+some faint show of their former spirit. The attempted rescue was
+defeated, however, by treachery within the walls; and, in 347, Olynthus
+fell. The threefold peninsula was now in the power of Philip, and he was
+able to push his interests throughout Greece rather by intrigue than
+force. Even in Athens a powerful party, sustained by his bribes, labored
+to undermine the efforts of the true patriots, of whom Demosthenes was
+chief. Æs´chines was the mouth-piece of the Macedonian party, an orator
+second only to Demosthenes himself, and won to Philip’s side, probably,
+more by flatteries than gifts. He constantly urged peace with the king,
+while Demosthenes, as soon as he perceived the extent of Philip’s
+designs, opposed them with all the unsparing vehemence of his nature. His
+_Philippics_ are the most forcible examples in any language of bold and
+eloquent opposition to an unjust usurpation of power.
+
+[Sidenote: B. C. 339.]
+
+=253.= In 340, war was declared on account of the aggressions of Philip
+on the Bosphorus; and the Second Sacred War, which broke out in the
+following year, gave him a reason for again passing Thermopylæ. He was
+now appointed general-in-chief of the Amphictyonic forces, and thus
+gained a position in the very heart of Greece, which he did not fail to
+use for his own advantage.
+
+[Sidenote: Aug. 7, B. C. 338.]
+
+=254.= The Thebans, in alarm, applied to Athens for aid, which was not
+refused. The armies met in battle at Chæronea, and the victory of Philip
+gave the death-blow to Grecian independence. All the states except
+Sparta acknowledged his sovereignty, and he was made generalissimo of
+the Hellenic forces in the war now projected against Persia. To overawe
+the hostility of Sparta, he marched through the Peloponnesus to the
+southern extremity, and returned by the western coast, meeting no serious
+opposition.
+
+Philip’s death by assassination interrupted the movement against the
+Persians, and for a moment revived the hopes of the patriots; but the
+Macedonian party prevailed under the youthful Alexander, who surpassed
+his father both as general and as king.
+
+
+RECAPITULATION.
+
+    Sparta destroyed the Olynthian confederacy, and seized upon
+    Thebes, which was rescued after three years by Pelopidas and
+    his fellow exiles. Athens regained her dominion both in the
+    eastern and western seas, while Thebes became the head of
+    the new Bœotian League. The treaty of Callias secured peace
+    among all the states, except Thebes and Sparta. The victory of
+    Epaminondas over the Spartans at Leuctra established the Theban
+    supremacy, which was recognized and supported by the Persians
+    during the remaining years of his life. He four times invaded
+    Peloponnesus; organized an Arcadian confederacy, with the new
+    city, Megalopolis, at its head; restored the exiled Messenians
+    to the lands of their ancestors; twice attacked Sparta itself;
+    and, finally, triumphed and fell at Mantinea. Agesilaus died on
+    his return from Egypt, where his aid had secured the throne to
+    Nectanabis. Athens declined from her second period of greatness
+    in consequence of the Social War, B. C. 357-355. The Phocians,
+    with the Delphic treasures which they confiscated, gained
+    ascendency in central Greece, but lost it in war with Philip of
+    Macedon. This king ended the Sacred War (B. C. 357-346) by the
+    destruction of Phocis, assumed her place in the Amphictyonic
+    Council, conquered the Chalcidian peninsulas, led the allied
+    forces in the Second Sacred War, and by his victory at Chæronea
+    established his supremacy over Greece. His son Alexander
+    inherited his civil and military command.
+
+
+QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW.
+
+BOOK III.
+
+    1. By what names has Greece been known?                           § 8.
+    2. What tribes were included among the Hellenes?                    9.
+    3. What foreigners aided to civilize Greece?                       10.
+    4. Describe three of the Greek heroes.                          11-13.
+    5. What can be said of the siege of Troy?                          14.
+    6. What was the state of the country and people in the
+         Heroic Age?                                            11, 17-20.
+    7. Describe the kings.                                         15, 16.
+    8. What connections between Greek and Asiatic religions?           21.
+    9. Name the twelve Olympian deities.                               23.
+   10. What bearing had Greek belief upon human conduct?               25.
+   11. What foreign ceremonies were borrowed by the Greeks?    26, 27, 29.
+   12. What is known of the Mysteries?                                 28.
+   13. Describe the oracles.                                        30-32.
+   14. What migrations in Greece, B. C. 1124-1100?                 33, 34.
+   15. Describe the Asiatic settlements.                    35-37, 85, 86.
+   16. What political changes at the close of the Heroic Age?          38.
+   17. What were the bonds of union among the Greeks?              39, 42.
+   18. Describe the games and the rewards of victors.              40, 41.
+   19. Recount the history of Argos.                                   43.
+   20. What were the condition and government of Sparta, B. C. 900? 44-46.
+   21. Describe the discipline of Lycurgus.                         47-53.
+   22.          The wars of Sparta during the Second Period.        55-61.
+   23. What was the character of Spartan influence in Greece?          62.
+   24. What difference of character between Athenians and Spartans?    63.
+   25. What changes in Athenian government within 400 years?       64, 65.
+   26. Describe the laws of Draco and their results.               66, 67.
+   27. What political parties in Attica?                               68.
+   28. What were the character and history of Solon?           69, 70, 74.
+   29. What was the spirit of his laws?                             71-73.
+   30. Describe the rise of Pisistratus.                               75.
+   31. What occurred during his first tyranny?                         76.
+   32. What occasioned his second expulsion?                           77.
+   33. Describe his third reign.                                       78.
+   34.           The reign and expulsion of Hippias.               79, 80.
+   35. What changes were introduced by Clisthenes?                     81.
+   36. Who opposed him?                                                82.
+   37. What dangers threatened Athens at this time?                    83.
+   38. What ceremonies attended the founding of Greek colonies?        84.
+   39. Describe the colonies in Italy.                              87-89.
+   40.                       In Gaul, Sicily, Africa, Thrace.       91-94.
+   41. Describe the movements of Darius against Greece.             95-97.
+   42.          The battle of Marathon.                            98, 99.
+   43.          The fall of Miltiades.                           101, 102.
+   44.          The character and history of Aristides.     103, 104, 116,
+                                                            117, 130, 132.
+   45.          The character and career of Themistocles.         104-109,
+                                                   113-117, 130, 136, 138.
+   46.          The battle of Thermopylæ.                        111, 112.
+   47.          The battle of Salamis.                                117.
+   48.          The retreat of Xerxes.                                118.
+   49.          The embassy of Alexander.                        119, 120.
+   50.          The condition of Athens.                              121.
+   51. Describe the campaign in Bœotia.                           122-126.
+   52.          The subsequent operations of the Greeks.         128, 129.
+   53. What changes in the rank and politics of Athens?               130.
+   54. Tell the story of Pausanias.                                   131.
+   55. Describe the rise of the Delian Confederacy.                   132.
+   56.          The career of Cimon.                133-137, 139-142, 150.
+   57.          The causes and events of the Third
+                    Messenian War.                          139, 142, 148.
+   58.          The history of Pericles.           140, 143, 145, 152-157,
+                                                             159, 161-165.
+   59. Tell the story of the First Peloponnesian War.             143-147.
+   60. What occurred at Delphi, B. C. 448?                            151.
+   61. Describe the battle of Coronæa, and its consequences
+        to Athens.                                                152-154.
+   62.          The Samian revolt.                               156, 157.
+   63.          The war between Corinth and Corcyra.                  158.
+   64.          The Theban attack upon Platæa.                        160.
+   65. How was Greece divided in the Peloponnesian War?               161.
+   66. What was the condition of Athens during the first two
+        years?                                               162-164, 166.
+   67. Describe the siege of Platæa.                                  167.
+   68.          The revolt of Mytilene.                           168-170.
+   69.          The revolution in Corcyra.                            171.
+   70.          The condition of Greece in the sixth year of the war. 172.
+   71. Describe the campaign at Pylos and Sphacteria.            173, 174.
+   72. What massacres occurred in the eighth year?                    175.
+   73. Describe the invasion of Bœotia.                               176.
+   74.          The campaign of Brasidas.                             177.
+   75. How long did the Peace of Nicias continue?           178, 180, 188.
+   76. Describe the career of Alcibiades.  179-186, 192-194, 198-200, 202.
+   77.          The Sicilian expedition.                          179-191.
+   78. What occasioned a revolution in Athens?                   194, 195.
+   79. Describe the maritime movements of 411, 410 B. C.          197-199.
+   80. What part was taken by Persia in the Peloponnesian War?    192-194,
+                                                            198, 201, 204.
+   81. What occurred at Ægos-Potami?                             205, 206.
+   82. What were the results to Athens?                           207-209.
+   83. Describe the reign of the Thirty Tyrants.                 210, 211.
+   84.          The reaction under Thrasybulus.                  212, 213.
+   85.          The trial and death of Socrates.                      214.
+   86. Describe the war of Sparta against Elis.                       215.
+   87.          Agesilaus, and his Asiatic campaign.             216, 217.
+   88.          The death of Lysander, and retirement of Pausanias.   218.
+   89.          The three great battles of 394 B. C.              219-221.
+   90. Who restored the walls of Athens?                              222.
+   91. Describe the last two years of the Corinthian War.             223.
+   92. What were the terms of the Peace of Antalcidas?                226.
+   93. What occurred at Thebes, from 382 to 379 B. C.?      227, 229, 230.
+   94. Describe the war in Bœotia and the western seas.               232.
+   95.          The treaty of Callias.                           233, 234.
+   96.          The character and tactics of Epaminondas.    229, 235-240,
+                                                                  244-246.
+   97.          The consequences to Sparta of the battle of Leuctra.  236.
+   98.          The restoration of the Messenians.                    239.
+   99.          The ambition of the Arcadians.                        241.
+  100.          The intervention of the Persians.                     242.
+  101.          The plunder of Olympia.                               243.
+  102.          The last campaign of Agesilaus.                       247.
+  103.          The second period of Athenian greatness, and
+                    Social War.                                       248.
+  104.          The Sacred War.                                       249.
+  105.          The advance of Philip of Macedon.                250, 251.
+  106.          Demosthenes and his _Philippics_.                     252.
+  107.          The results of the battle of Chæronea.                254.
+  108. Who succeeded Philip as head of the Grecian armies?            254.
+  109. How long was Athens the leading state of Greece?
+  110. What two periods of Spartan supremacy?
+  111. Length of the Theban supremacy?
+  112. What was an Olympiad?                                           40.
+
+
+
+
+BOOK IV.
+
+HISTORY OF THE MACEDONIAN EMPIRE AND THE KINGDOMS FORMED FROM IT, UNTIL
+THEIR CONQUEST BY THE ROMANS.
+
+
+FIRST PERIOD. _From the Rise of the Monarchy to the Death of Alexander
+the Great, about B. C. 700-323._
+
+=1.= The Kingdom of Macedon, lying north of Thessaly and east of
+Illyr´icum, was of little importance before the reign of Philip II.,
+whose aggressions ended the independent history of Greece. (See Book III,
+§§ 248-254.) In 507 B. C., Amyntas I. submitted to Darius Hystaspes; and
+fifteen years later, in the first expedition of Mardonius, the country
+became a mere province of the Persian empire, the native kings governing
+as tributaries. After Xerxes’ retreat, B. C. 480, Macedonia became free
+again, and began to push eastward along the northern coast of the Ægean.
+Here it met two rivals: the new Thracian kingdom of Sitalces upon its
+eastern frontier, and the Athenian power in the Greek cities of the
+Chalcidian peninsulas.
+
+=2.= When Athens was prostrated by her Sicilian disasters, the short but
+brilliant reign of Ar´chela´us I. (B. C. 413-399) laid the foundation of
+Macedonian greatness. He improved his country by roads, strengthened it
+by forts, and introduced a better discipline into the army. His death was
+followed by forty years of great tumult, a continued scene of plots and
+assassinations, to recount which would only confuse without profiting
+the student. When Perdiccas III. died in battle, he left an infant son,
+Amyntas, under the regency of his brother Philip. At least five other
+princes claimed the crown; the victorious Illyrians occupied the western
+provinces, and Thrace and Pæo´nia were ready to absorb the eastern.
+
+=3.= Philip overcame all these perils with admirable spirit and ability.
+He made himself king instead of his nephew, defeated the Illyrians, and
+took advantage of the Social War to seize Amphipolis, Pydna, and Potidæa.
+He pushed the Macedonian boundary eastward as far as the Nestus, and
+built the town of Philip´pi for the protection of the gold mines. These
+had fallen into neglect during the wars of Athens, but under his improved
+management they soon yielded a yearly revenue of a thousand talents
+($1,250,000).
+
+=4.= Philip, in his youth, had spent three years in Thebes, where he had
+studied the tactics of Epaminondas, as well as the language, character,
+and politics of the Greeks. On coming to power, he devoted unwearied
+attention to the drilling of his army, until it far surpassed that of any
+Hellenic state. No less skilled in diplomacy than in military science,
+he knew how to take advantage of the rivalries in Greece, and the
+corruptibility of all parties, to play off one against the other, and so
+render himself supreme. His rapid movements made him seem to be in many
+places at the same moment, and no circumstance which either threatened or
+favored his interests escaped his eye.
+
+=5.= The Olynthian War ended with the capture of thirty-two cities in
+Chalcidice; the Sacred War made Philip master of Phocis and head of the
+Amphictyonic League. In eastern Thrace, the Athenians found aid in the
+Persians, who were already alarmed by the rapid rise of the Macedonian
+power, and Perin´thus and Byzantium were thus saved for a time. Philip
+was victorious (B. C. 339) against a Scythian prince of what is now
+Bulga´ria; and though he was defeated and wounded on his return, in a
+battle with the Triballi, his plots went on with uninterrupted success.
+The Second Sacred War gave him supremacy in central Greece, and the
+victory at Chæronea prostrated all remaining opposition. The Congress at
+Corinth (B. C. 337) acknowledged his headship, and appointed him to lead
+the Greek forces against Persia. The advanced guard of the Macedonian
+army was already in Asia, when Philip was assassinated, during the
+festivities attending the marriage of his daughter, B. C. 336.
+
+=6.= In the midst of Philip’s early victories, he had heard of the
+birth of his son Alexander at Pella. He wrote immediately to his friend
+Ar´istot´le,[58] expressing his joy that the young prince was born
+during the life of the philosopher to whom he could most gladly commit
+his education. On the same day that Alexander was born, the temple of
+Artemis at Ephesus was burnt to the ground. The priests and soothsayers,
+regarding the fire as an evil omen, ran about the city beating their
+breasts and crying aloud, “This day has brought forth the scourge and
+destroyer of Asia.” B. C. 356.
+
+[Illustration: Coin of Alexander, enlarged one-half.]
+
+=7.= At the age of sixteen, Alexander was left regent of the kingdom
+during his father’s campaign against Byzantium. At Chæroaea, two years
+later, he led a corps of Macedonian youth against the Sacred Band of
+Thebes, and the victory was mainly due to his courage and impetuosity.
+Upon the death of his father, Alexander, at twenty years of age, ascended
+a throne beset with many dangers. He expelled or killed his nearest
+rivals, marched into Greece and convened at Corinth a new congress, which
+conferred upon him the same dignities and powers previously granted to
+his father; then instantly returning to Macedon, he signally defeated
+his enemies on the west and north, some of whom he pursued even beyond
+the Danube. During these campaigns a false report of his death reached
+Greece, and Thebes seized the occasion to revolt. But Alexander appeared
+suddenly before her gates, stormed and took the city, which, by way of
+warning to others, he completely destroyed—saving only the house of
+Pindar, the poet—and either enslaved or massacred the inhabitants.
+
+=8.= Greece was now awed into submission, and Alexander prepared to
+execute his father’s and his own schemes of Asiatic conquest. In the
+spring of 334 B. C., he crossed the Hellespont with 35,000 men. The
+Persians awaiting him at the Granicus were defeated, and Alexander, with
+his usual celerity, overran Asia Minor, which submitted with little
+opposition. Memnon, a Rhodian Greek in the service of Darius, and his
+greatest general, desired to carry the war into Macedonia, by means of
+the overwhelming fleet of the Persians. His movements detained Alexander
+some months near the Ægean coast; but his death, in the spring of 333 B.
+C., left the invader free to march toward the heart of the empire. Darius
+led a vast army to the plain of the Orontes, where he might have had the
+advantage over his assailant; but Alexander lingered in the Cilician
+mountain passes, until the Persian king was impatient and came to meet
+him. The battle of Issus (B. C. 333, Nov.) resulted in the defeat of the
+Persians with great slaughter.
+
+=9.= Instead of following Darius, Alexander proceeded to conquer the
+sea-coast of the Mediterranean as far as Egypt, thus providing for the
+security of Macedon and Greece. Most of the Phœnician cities submitted
+as he approached, but Tyre withstood him seven months. When it was taken
+(B. C. 332, July), 8,000 of its people were massacred and 30,000 sold
+into slavery. Ga´za was captured after a siege of two months. According
+to Josephus, the conqueror then marched upon Jerusalem. The high priest,
+Jad´dua, came forth to meet him, wearing the breastplate of precious
+stones and the miter inscribed with the Holy Name. Alexander prostrated
+himself with profound reverence before the priest, and explained to his
+followers that in a vision, before leaving Europe, he had seen such a
+figure, which had invited him to the conquest of Asia. The high priest
+pointed out to him the prophecies of Daniel concerning his career; and
+Alexander, in adding the Jews to his empire, exempted them from tribute
+every seventh year, when, according to their law, they could neither sow
+nor reap.
+
+=10.= In Egypt the Macedonian king was gladly welcomed, for the people
+hated the Persians for having insulted their gods and profaned their
+temples. At the western mouth of the Nile he founded a new capital,
+which he designed as the commercial exchange of the eastern and western
+worlds. Alexandria, with its great advantages of position, soon became a
+rich and magnificent city. A less judicious proceeding of the conqueror
+was a toilsome march across the desert to the temple of Amun. He was
+rewarded, however, in being saluted by the priests as the son of the god,
+a distinction which Alexander greatly valued.
+
+=11.= Turning to the north and east, Alexander now sought the grand
+contest which was to transfer to him the dominions of Cyrus. He had
+purposely given Darius time to collect the entire force of his empire, so
+that one battle might decide its fate. The battle of Arbela (B. C. 331,
+Oct.) has been described in Book II. As its result the three capitals,
+Susa, Persep´olis, and Babylon, surrendered almost without resistance;
+and Alexander might, without further effort, have assumed the pomp and
+ease of an Oriental monarch. But his restless spirit carried him on to
+the conquest of the eastern provinces and India. He first marched into
+Media, where Darius had rallied the remnants of his forces to oppose him,
+but on his approach the dethroned king fled through the Caspian Gates
+to Bactria. Before Alexander could overtake him, he was murdered by his
+rebellious satrap, Bessus, who assumed the title of king of Persia.
+
+=12.= The Greek mercenaries of Darius, who had formed his most effective
+force, were now added to the army of the conqueror. From province
+to province Alexander marched, receiving submission and organizing
+governments. Bessus fled into Sogdiana, but was taken, and suffered a
+cruel death for his treason and usurpation. A new city of Alexandria
+was founded on the Jaxartes; and having chastised the Scythians to the
+northward, the conqueror returned to Bactria, where he spent the winter
+of 329 B. C.
+
+=13.= The genius of Alexander began to be disgraced by the pride and
+unscrupulous cruelty of an Eastern king. He adopted the Persian dress and
+ceremonial, and required his courtiers to prostrate themselves before
+him, as to a divinity rather than a mortal. He had already put to death
+his friend Philo´tas, on an unproved charge of plotting against his life;
+and the aged Parme´nio, father of Philotas, was subjected without trial
+to a similar fate. At Bactra, in a drunken revel, Alexander murdered his
+friend Clitus with his own hand.
+
+=14.= During his two years’ war against Sogdiana, Alexander captured a
+mountain fortress, where Oxyar´tes, a Bactrian prince, had deposited his
+family. Roxa´na, one of the princesses, became the wife of the conqueror.
+In the spring of 327 B. C., the Macedonian army crossed the Indus and
+invaded the Punjab. No resistance was encountered until it reached the
+Hydas´pes, where Porus, an Indian king, was drawn up with his elephants
+and a formidable body of men. An obstinate battle resulted in the defeat
+and capture of Porus; but his brave spirit so commanded the respect of
+his conqueror, that he was permitted to retain his kingdom.
+
+Alexander founded two cities near the Hydaspes, one named Buceph´ala, in
+honor of his favorite horse, which died there, and the other, Nicæ´a,
+in commemoration of his victories. He gave orders for the building of
+a fleet from the Indian forests, while he advanced with his army still
+farther to the eastward. All the tribes as far as the Hypha´sis (Sutlej)
+were conquered, one by one. On arriving at that river, the Macedonians
+refused to go farther. They declared that they had more than fulfilled
+the terms of their enlistment, and that they were worn out by the
+hardships of eight unprecedented campaigns.
+
+=15.= Alexander was compelled to turn back. His fleet was now ready, and
+he descended the Hydaspes to the Indus, in the autumn and winter of 327
+B. C. His army marched in two columns along the banks, the entire valley
+submitting with little resistance. Two more cities were founded, and
+left with Greek garrisons and governors. Arriving at the Indian Ocean,
+Near´chus was sent with the fleet to the Persian Gulf, while Alexander
+returned by land. His march through Gedro´sia was the most severe of all
+his operations, the army suffering for the want of food and water. At
+Pura he obtained supplies, and proceeded through Kerman to Pasargadæ, and
+thence to Persepolis. Arriving at Susa in the spring of 325 B. C., he
+allowed his army some months of needed rest, while he began to organize
+the vast empire which he had so rapidly built up.
+
+=16.= Desiring to unite his eastern and western dominions by every bond
+of sympathy and common interest, he assigned to eighty of his officers
+Asiatic wives with rich dowries. He had himself set the example by taking
+for his second wife Barsi´ne, daughter of Darius III.; and when ten
+thousand of the soldiery married Asiatic women, he gave presents to them
+all. Twenty thousand Persians were received into the army, and drilled
+in Macedonian tactics; while Persian satraps were placed over several
+provinces, and the court was equally composed of Asiatics and Europeans.
+Some of Alexander’s veterans, seeing the conquered nations placed on
+a level with themselves, broke into open mutiny. He silenced their
+complaints with great address, and then sent 10,000 of them home.
+
+=17.= Unlike most conquerors, Alexander improved the countries which he
+had won by arms. Rivers were cleared from obstructions, commerce revived,
+and western enterprise took the place of Asiatic indolence and poverty.
+The Greek language and literature were planted every-where: every new
+exploration added to the treasures of science and the enlightenment of
+the human race. On his march from Ecbatana to Babylon, Alexander was met
+by embassadors from almost every part of the known world, who came to
+offer either submission or friendship.
+
+=18.= He designed to conquer first Arabia, then Italy, Carthage, and the
+West, extending his empire from the Indus to the Pillars of Hercules.
+Babylon was to be his capital; and Alexander descended the river, to
+inspect in person the improvement of the canals which distributed water
+over the plain. But his magnificent schemes were cut short from their
+accomplishment by his early death. On his return from visiting the
+canals, he found the Arabian expedition nearly ready to sail, and he
+celebrated the occasion by a banquet to Nearchus and the chief officers.
+In the midst of the subsequent preparations, the king was attacked by a
+fever, occasioned by his exertions among the marshes, and aggravated,
+perhaps, by the wine he had taken at the festival. After an illness of
+eleven days he died, at the age of thirty-two, having reigned twelve
+years and eight months.
+
+
+RECAPITULATION.
+
+    Macedonia rose to greatness under Archelaus (B. C. 418-399);
+    was greatly increased by Philip II. (B. C. 350-336), who became
+    master of Greece. Alexander, trained in his youth to war and
+    diplomacy, began his reign at twenty; led a Greek army into
+    Asia; defeated the Persians at the Granicus and at Issus;
+    conquered Phœnicia, Syria, and Egypt; founded Alexandria on the
+    Nile; gained a decisive victory over Darius at Arbela, B. C.
+    331; subdued the eastern and northern provinces of the empire;
+    founded cities in western India; explored its rivers and coasts
+    in the interest of science; planned the amalgamation of Europe
+    and Asia, and the extension of his empire westward to the
+    Atlantic; died B. C. 323.
+
+
+SECOND PERIOD. _From the Death of Alexander to the Battle of Ipsus_, B.
+C. 323-301.
+
+=19.= Alexander named no successor, but shortly before his death he gave
+his ring to Perdiccas. This general, as prime minister, kept the empire
+united for two years in the royal family. An infant prince, Alexander
+IV., born after his father’s death, was associated on the throne with
+Philip Arrhidæ´us, half-brother of the great Alexander. Four regents or
+guardians of the empire were appointed—two in Europe and two in Asia. One
+of these was murdered by Perdiccas, who thus acquired for himself the
+sole administration of Asia, Antipater and Crat´erus ruling west of the
+Bosphorus.
+
+The provinces not already bestowed by the conqueror were divided among
+ten of his generals, who were expected to govern in the name and for
+the benefit of the two kings. Finding it impossible, however, either by
+management or force, to keep these lieutenants in subjection to the mere
+name of royalty, Perdiccas formed a plan to seize the sovereignty for
+himself. Eu´menes was on his side, while his colleagues in the regency,
+and the two great provincial governors, Ptol´emy and Antig´onus, were
+his most powerful opponents. In a campaign against Ptolemy, in Egypt,
+Perdiccas was slain by his own mutinous soldiers. Craterus fell in a
+battle with Eumenes, in Cappadocia, and the sole regency devolved upon
+Antip´ater. This general defeated the schemes of Euryd´ice—niece of
+Alexander the Great, and wife of the imbecile king, Philip Arrhidæus—who
+even harangued the army at Tripar´adi´sus, in Syria, demanding to be
+admitted to a share in the government. A fresh division and assignment of
+the provinces was now made. Antigonus was charged with the prosecution of
+the war against Eumenes, in which he made himself master of the greater
+part of Asia Minor.
+
+=20.= Antipater died in Macedon, B. C. 319, leaving the regency, not
+to his son Cassan´der, but to his friend Polysper´chon. Cassander, in
+disgust, fled to Antigonus; and in the war which followed, these two,
+with Ptolemy, sought the disruption of the empire, while Eumenes and
+Polysperchon fought for its unity. Eumenes collected a force in Cilicia,
+with which he meant to conquer Syria and Phœnicia, and thus gain command
+of the sea. Antigonus first defeated a royal fleet near Byzantium, and
+then marched across the country to the borders of Syria, and pursued
+Eumenes inland beyond the Tigris. A number of the eastern satraps here
+joined Eumenes, but after two indecisive battles he was seized by his own
+troops and given up to Antigonus, who put him to death, B. C. 316.
+
+=21.= In Macedonia, the mock king, Philip Arrhidæus, and his wife were
+executed, by order of Olympias, the mother of Alexander the Great.
+But this imperious princess was captured, in her turn, at Pydna;
+and, in violation of the terms of her surrender, was murdered by her
+enemies. Cassander became master of Macedonia and Greece. He married
+Thes´saloni´ca, half-sister of the Conqueror, and founded in her honor
+the city which bears her name, B. C. 316.
+
+=22.= The ambition of Antigonus now began to alarm his colleagues,
+for he was evidently not to be satisfied with less than the entire
+dominion of Alexander. He gave away the eastern satrapies according to
+his pleasure. From Babylonia he drove Seleu´cus, who took refuge with
+Ptolemy in Egypt, and formed a league with Cassander, Lysim´achus, and
+Asander. A war of four years followed (B. C. 315-311), which resulted
+in the re-establishment of Seleucus in Babylon and the East, while
+Antigonus gained power in Greece, Syria, and Asia Minor. The peace of B.
+C. 311 provided for the independence of the Greek cities, but allowed
+each general to keep what he had gained, and left Cassander regent
+of Macedonia until Alexander IV. should be of age. It was probably
+understood between the contracting parties that this last event was
+never to occur. The young king and his mother were murdered, by order of
+Cassander.
+
+=23.= At the end of a year, Ptolemy broke the peace, on the pretense
+that Antigonus had not liberated the Greek cities of Asia Minor. He
+was opposed in Cilicia by Deme´trius, son of Antigonus, who gained in
+this war the title of _Po´liorce´tes_, the Besieger. Ptolemy, entering
+Greece, seized Sicyon and Corinth, and aimed to marry Cleopatra, the
+last survivor of the royal house of Macedon; but the princess was
+assassinated, by order of Cassander, B. C. 308. Demetrius now arriving
+with a fleet to the relief of Athens, Ptolemy withdrew to Cyprus, and
+gained possession of the island. A great battle followed off Salamis, one
+of the most severe in the world’s history. Ptolemy was defeated, with the
+loss of all but eight of his ships, leaving 17,000 prisoners in the hands
+of the enemy.
+
+=24.= The five principal generals now assumed the kingly title. Demetrius
+spent a year in the siege of Rhodes, which, by its brave and memorable
+defense, secured the privileges of a neutral in the remaining years of
+the war. Returning to Greece, he assembled a congress at Corinth, which
+conferred upon him the titles formerly bestowed on Philip and Alexander,
+and then marched northward against the regent, or, rather, king of
+Macedon. Alarmed at his endangered position, Cassander stirred up his
+allies to invade Asia Minor.
+
+=25.= The decisive battle took place, B. C. 301, at Ipsus, in Phrygia.
+Demetrius had arrived from Europe to the assistance of his father; but
+Seleucus, with the forces of the East, including 480 Indian elephants,
+increased the army of Lysimachus. Antigonus, in his eighty-first year,
+was slain; Demetrius, completely defeated, took refuge in Greece, but
+was not permitted to enter Athens. The two conquerors, Seleucus and
+Lysimachus, divided the dominions of Alexander, with due regard to their
+own interests. Seleucus received the Euphrates Valley, Upper Syria,
+Cappadocia, and part of Phrygia. Lysimachus added the rest of Asia Minor
+to his Thracian dominion, which extended along the western shores of the
+Euxine as far as the mouths of the Danube; Ptolemy retained Egypt, and
+Cassander continued to reign in Macedonia until his death.
+
+[Illustration: EMPIRE of the MACEDONIANS.]
+
+=26.= The results of the twenty years’ war were disastrous to Greece
+and Macedonia, not only by the exhausting expenditure of blood and
+treasure, but by the introduction of Oriental habits of luxury and
+unmanly servility, in place of the free and simple manners of former
+times. Though the minds of the Greeks were enlarged by a knowledge of
+the history and philosophy of the Eastern nations, and by observation of
+the natural world and its productions in new climates and circumstances,
+yet most of the influences which had kept alive the free spirit of the
+people had ceased to work. Patriotism was dead; learning took the place
+of genius; and imitation, the place of art.
+
+=27.= At the same time, Asia had gained many splendid cities, her
+commerce had vastly increased, and the Greek military discipline and
+forms of civil government gave new strength to her armies and states.
+From the Indus to the Adriatic, and from the Crimea to the southern
+bounds of Egypt, the Greek language prevailed, at least among the
+educated and ruling classes. In Asia Minor, Syria, and Egypt, the
+influence of Hellenic thought continued a thousand years in full force,
+until Mahomet and his successors set up their new Semitic empire. The
+wide diffusion of the Greek language in western Asia was among the most
+important preparations for the spread of Christianity. If Alexander had
+lived to complete his great scheme of interfusing the eastern and western
+races, Asia would have gained and Europe lost in still greater measure.
+
+
+RECAPITULATION.
+
+    Perdiccas became vizier, Philip Arrhidæus and Alexander IV
+    being nominally kings. Wars of the generals for the division of
+    the empire, B. C. 321-316; 315-311; 310-301. Murder of the two
+    kings, 316, 311. Battle of Salamis in Cyprus, 306. The decisive
+    combat at Ipsus gave Syria and the East to Seleucus; Egypt, to
+    Ptolemy; Thrace, to Lysimachus; Macedonia, to Cassander.
+
+
+THIRD PERIOD. _History of the Several Kingdoms into which Alexander’s
+Empire was divided._
+
+
+I. THE SYRIAN KINGDOM OF THE SELEU´CIDÆ. B. C. 312-65.
+
+=28.= After the restoration of Seleucus to the government of Babylonia
+(see § 22), he extended his power over all the provinces between the
+Euphrates and the Indus. He even made war against an Indian kingdom upon
+the western headwaters of the Ganges, gaining thereby a great extension
+of commerce, and the addition of five hundred elephants to his army. The
+battle of Ipsus added to his dominions the country as far west as the
+Mediterranean and the center of Phrygia, making his kingdom by far the
+greatest that had been formed from the fragments of Alexander’s empire.
+
+This vast dominion was organized by Seleucus with great skill and
+energy. In each of the seventy-two provinces new cities sprang up, as
+monuments of his power and centers of Greek civilization. Sixteen of
+these were named Antioch, in honor of his father; five Laodice´a, for his
+mother, Laod´ice; seven for himself, Sel´euci´a; and several for his two
+wives, Apame´a and Stratoni´ce. To watch more effectually the movements
+of his rivals, Ptolemy and Lysimachus, he removed the seat of government
+from the Euphrates to his new capital, Antioch, on the Orontes, which
+continued nearly a thousand years to be one of the richest and most
+populous cities in the world.
+
+[Illustration: Coin of Antioch, twice the size of the original.]
+
+=29.= In 293 B. C., Seleucus divided his empire with his son Anti´ochus,
+giving the younger prince all the provinces east of the Euphrates.
+Demetrius Poliorcetes, after gaining and then losing Macedonia, sought
+to make for himself a new kingdom in Asia, out of the possessions of
+Lysimachus and Seleucus. He was defeated by the latter, and remained a
+prisoner the rest of his life.
+
+=30.= Lysimachus, king of Thrace, under the influence of his Egyptian
+wife and her brother, Ptolemy Cerau´nus, had alienated the hearts of
+his subjects by the murder of his son. The widow of the murdered prince
+fled for protection to the court of Seleucus, who undertook her cause
+and invaded the territories of Lysimachus. The two aged kings were now
+the only survivors of the companions and generals of Alexander. In the
+battle of Corupe´dion, B. C. 281, Lysimachus was slain, and all his
+Asiatic dominions were transferred to Seleucus. The empire of Alexander
+seemed about to be united in the hands of one man. Before crossing the
+Hellespont to seize the European provinces, the Syrian king committed the
+government of his present dominion to his son, Antiochus. Then passing
+the strait, he advanced to Lys´imachi´a, the capital of his late enemy;
+but here he was killed by the hand of Ptolemy Ceraunus, B. C. 280. Thrace
+and Macedonia became the prize of the murderer.
+
+=31.= Antiochus I. (Soter) inherited the Asiatic dominions of his father,
+and made war in Asia Minor against the native kings of Bithynia. One of
+these, Nicomedes, called to his assistance the Gauls, who were ravaging
+eastern Europe, and rewarded their services with a large territory in
+northern Phrygia, which was thence called Gala´tia. North-western Lydia
+was also wrested from Antiochus, and formed the kingdom of Per´gamus.
+From his only important victory over the Gauls, B. C. 275, the Syrian
+king derived his title _Soter_ (the Deliverer); but his operations were
+usually unsuccessful, and his kingdom was much reduced both in wealth
+and power during his reign. He was defeated and slain near Ephesus, in a
+battle with the Gauls, B. C. 261.
+
+=32.= Antiochus II. bore the blasphemous title of _Theos_ (the God), but
+he showed himself less than a man by the weakness and licentiousness
+of his reign. He abandoned all affairs to worthless favorites, who
+were neither feared nor respected in the distant provinces, and two
+independent kingdoms sprang up unchecked in Parthia and Bactria, B.
+C. 255. The influence of his wife, Laodice, involved him in a war
+with Egypt. It was ended by the divorce of Laodice, and the marriage
+of Antiochus with Ber´eni´ce, daughter of Ptolemy Philadelphus (B. C.
+260-252). On the death of Philadelphus, Antiochus sent away Berenice
+and took back Laodice; but she, doubting his constancy, murdered him to
+secure the kingdom for her son, Seleucus. Berenice and her infant son
+were also put to death.
+
+=33.= Seleucus II. (Callini´cus) was first engaged in war with the king
+of Egypt, Ptolemy Euer´getes, who came to avenge the deaths of his sister
+and nephew. With the exception of part of Lydia and Phrygia, all Asia
+west of the Tigris, and even Susiana, Media, and Persia, submitted to
+the invader; but the severity of his exactions excited discontent, and
+a revolt in Egypt called him home, whereupon Callinicus regained his
+territories. Antiochus Hi´erax (the Hawk), a younger brother of the king,
+revolted at fourteen years of age, with the assistance of his uncle and
+a troop of Gauls. At the same time, Arsa´ces II., the Parthian king,
+gained great advantages in Upper Asia, and signally defeated Callinicus
+(B. C. 237), who led an expedition in person against him. The war between
+the brothers ended, B. C. 229, in the defeat of the rebellious prince.
+Seleucus died by a fall from his horse, B. C. 226.
+
+Seleucus III. (Ceraunus) reigned only three years. In the midst of an
+expedition against Attalus, king of Pergamus, he was killed in a mutiny
+by some of his own officers.
+
+=34.= Antiochus III., the Great, had an eventful reign of thirty-six
+years. Molo, his general, first revolted, and made himself master, one by
+one, of the countries east of the Euphrates, destroying all the armies
+sent against him. Antiochus at length defeated him, B. C. 220, and then
+made war upon Egypt for the recovery of Syria and Palestine, which had
+hitherto been held by Ptolemy. He was successful at first, but his
+defeat at Raph´ia robbed him of all his conquests, except Seleucia in
+Syria. Achæ´us, his cousin, and hitherto a faithful servant of Antiochus
+and his father, had meanwhile been driven into revolt by the false
+accusations of Hermi´as, the prime minister. He subjected to his control
+all the countries west of the Taurus. As soon as peace had been made
+with Egypt, the king of Syria marched against him, deprived him of all
+his possessions in one campaign, besieged him two years in Sardis, and
+finally captured and put him to death.
+
+=35.= The Parthian king, Arsaces III., had taken up arms against Media.
+Antiochus led an army across the desert to Hecatom´pylos, the Parthian
+capital, which he captured; but the battle which followed was indecisive,
+and Arsaces remained independent, with the possession of Parthia and
+Hyrcania. The war against the Bactrian monarch had a similar result,
+Euthyde´mus retaining Bactria and Sogdiana. Antiochus penetrated India,
+and renewed the old alliance of Seleucus Nicator with the king of the
+upper Ganges. Wintering in Kerma´nia, the Syrian king made a naval
+expedition, the next year, against the piratical Arabs of the western
+shores of the Persian Gulf. On his return from his seven years’ absence
+in the East, Antiochus received the title of “Great,” by which he is
+known in history.
+
+=36.= The same year, B. C. 205, Ptolemy Epiph´anes, a child of five
+years, succeeded his father in Egypt. Tempted by the unprotected state of
+the kingdom, Antiochus made a treaty with Philip of Macedon to divide the
+dominions of Ptolemy between them. Philip’s designs were interrupted by a
+war with Rome, the now powerful republic of the West. Antiochus carried
+on the contest with great energy, but with varying success, in Cœle-Syria
+and Palestine. By the decisive battle of Pa´neas, B. C. 198, he gained
+complete possession of those provinces; but desiring to prosecute his
+wars in another direction, he married his daughter Cleopatra to the young
+king of Egypt, and promised the conquered country as her dower.
+
+=37.= He then overran Asia Minor, and crossing the Hellespont, seized
+the Thracian Chersonesus. The Romans, who had conquered Philip and
+were guardians of Ptolemy, now sent an embassy to Antiochus, requiring
+him to surrender all his conquests of territory belonging to either
+prince, B. C. 196. Antiochus indignantly rejected their interference,
+and prepared for war, with the aid of their great enemy, Hannibal, who
+had taken refuge at his court. In 192 B. C., he crossed into Greece and
+captured Chalcis; but he was signally defeated soon after by the Romans,
+at Thermopylæ, and compelled to withdraw from Europe. They followed him
+across the sea, and by two naval victories gained the western coast
+of Asia Minor. The two Scip´ios crossed the Hellespont and defeated
+Antiochus a fourth time, near Magnesia, in Lydia. He obtained peace only
+by surrendering all Asia Minor except Cilicia, with his navy and all his
+elephants, and by paying an enormous war indemnity. Twenty hostages were
+given for the payment, among whom was Antiochus Epiphanes, the king’s
+son. The king of Pergamus received the ceded provinces, and became a most
+formidable rival to Syria. To meet his engagements with the Romans,
+Antiochus plundered the temples of Asia, and in a commotion excited by
+this means in Elyma´is, he lost his life.
+
+=38.= Seleucus IV. (Philop´ator) had a reign of eleven years, unmarked by
+important events. The kingdom was exhausted, and the Romans were ready to
+seize any exposed province at the least hostile movement of the Syrians.
+Heliodo´rus, the treasurer, at length murdered his master and assumed
+the crown; but his usurpation was cut short by the arrival of Antiochus
+Epiphanes, brother of the late king, who with the aid of Eumenes, king of
+Pergamus, established himself upon the throne.
+
+=39.= Antiochus IV. had been thirteen years a hostage at Rome, and
+surprised his people by the Roman customs which he introduced. He made a
+four years’ war against Egypt, and had nearly conquered the country when
+the Romans interfered, and commanded him to give up all his conquests. He
+was forced to obey, but he vented his rage upon the Jews, whose temple
+he plundered and desecrated. They sprang to arms, under the leadership
+of Mat´tathi´as, the priest, and his brave son, Judas Maccabæ´us, and
+defeated the army sent to subdue them. Antiochus, who was now in the
+East, set forth in person to avenge this insult to his authority. On his
+way, he attempted to plunder the temple at Elymais, and was seized with
+a furious insanity, in which he died. Both Jews and Greeks believed his
+madness to be a judgment for his sacrilege.
+
+=40.= Antiochus V. (Eu´pator), a boy of twelve years, came to the throne
+under the control of Lys´ias, the regent. But his father, when dying, had
+appointed him another guardian in the person of Philip, who returned to
+Antioch bearing the royal signet, while the young king and his minister
+were absent in Judæa. Lysias, on hearing this, hastened to make peace
+with Judas Maccabæus, and turned back to fight with Philip, whom he
+defeated and put to death. The Parthians, meanwhile, were overrunning the
+kingdom on the east; and the Romans, on the west, were harshly enforcing
+the terms of the treaty made by Antiochus the Great. Demetrius, the son
+of Seleucus Philopator, now escaped from Rome, and gained possession
+of the kingdom, after ordering the execution of both Eupator and his
+guardian.
+
+=41.= Demetrius I. spent some years in vain attempts to put down the
+Jewish rebellion. His armies were defeated by Judas Maccabæus, and
+the Romans entered into alliance with Judæa, which they now declared
+an independent kingdom. The Syrian king was no more successful in
+Cappadocia; and in Babylon, the satrap whom he had deposed set up
+an impostor, Alexander Balas, who claimed to be a son of Antiochus
+Epiphanes. Aided by the forces of Rome, Pergamus, Cappadocia, Egypt, and
+Judæa, this man conquered Demetrius and kept the kingdom five years.
+
+=42.= Alexander Balas proved unworthy of a crown, by leaving public
+affairs in the weak and incompetent hands of his favorite, Ammo´nius,
+while he abandoned himself to indolence and luxury. Demetrius Nica´tor,
+eldest son of the former king, encouraged by the contempt of the Syrians
+for the licentiousness of Alexander, landed in Cilicia and made war for
+the recovery of his kingdom. Ptolemy of Egypt, who had entered Syria with
+an army for the aid of his son-in-law, Alexander, became disgusted by his
+ingratitude and came over to the side of Demetrius. A battle near Antioch
+was decided in favor of the allies. Alexander fled into Arabia, where he
+was assassinated by some of his own officers.
+
+=43.= Demetrius II. (Nicator) ruled with such wanton cruelty as to
+alienate his subjects. One of them, Diod´otus Tryphon, set up a rival
+king in the person of Antiochus VI., a child two years of age, the son of
+Alexander Balas. After three or four years he removed this infant monarch
+and made himself king, with the aid of Judas Maccabæus. Demetrius, after
+fighting ineffectually seven years against his rivals in the west, left
+the regency of Syria to his wife, Cleopatra, while he turned against
+the Parthians, who had nearly conquered his eastern provinces. He was
+defeated and made prisoner by Arsaces VI., and remained ten years a
+captive, though he was treated with all the honors of royalty, and
+received a Parthian princess for his second wife.
+
+=44.= Cleopatra, unable to wage war alone against Tryphon, called in
+Antiochus Side´tes, her husband’s brother, who conquered the usurper
+and seated himself on the vacant throne. He made war against the Jews,
+and captured Jerusalem by a siege of nearly a year. He afterward turned
+against the Parthians and gained some advantages, but he was finally
+defeated and lost his life after a reign of nine years. Demetrius Nicator
+had been released by the Parthian king, and now re-established himself
+in Syria. But Ptolemy Phys´con, of Egypt, raised up a new pretender,
+Zabi´nas, who defeated Demetrius at Damascus. Attempting to enter Tyre,
+the Syrian king was captured and put to death.
+
+=45.= Seleucus V., his eldest son, assumed the crown without the
+permission of his mother, who thereupon caused him to be executed,
+and associated with herself her second son, Antiochus VIII. (Grypus).
+Zabinas, the pretender, reigned at the same time in part of Syria, until
+he was defeated by Antiochus, and put to death by poison, B. C. 122. The
+same year Cleopatra was detected in a plot against the life of her son,
+and was herself executed.
+
+=46.= Exhausted by long wars, and greatly reduced both in power and
+extent, Syria now enjoyed eight years of peace. Judæa and the provinces
+east of the Euphrates were wholly independent. The few Syrians who
+possessed wealth were enfeebled by luxury, while the mass of the people
+were crushed by want. In 114 B. C., Antiochus Cyzice´nus, a half-brother
+of the king, revolted against him, and involved the country in another
+bloody war of three years. The territory was then divided between
+them; but war broke out afresh in 105 B. C., and continued nine years,
+resulting in no gain to either party, but great loss and misery to the
+nation. Tyre, Sidon, Seleucia, and the whole province of Cilicia became
+independent. The Arabs on one side, and the Egyptians on the other,
+ravaged the country at pleasure. At length the reign of Antiochus VIII.
+was ended with his life, by Hera´cleon, an officer of his court, B. C. 96.
+
+=47.= The murderer did not receive the reward of his crime, for Seleucus
+VI. (Epiphanes), the eldest son of Grypus, gained possession of the
+kingdom. In two years he conquered Cyzicenus, who committed suicide to
+avoid capture; but the claims of the rival house were still maintained
+by Antiochus X. (Eu´sebes), his eldest son. Seleucus was now driven
+into Cilicia. Here he came to a miserable end, for he was burnt alive
+by the people of a town from which he had demanded a subsidy. Philip,
+the brother of Seleucus, and second son of Antiochus Grypus, became
+king, and with the aid of his younger brothers continued the war against
+Eusebes. This prince was defeated and driven to take refuge in Parthia.
+But no peace came to the country, for Philip and his brothers, Antiochus
+XI., Demetrius, and Antiochus XII., made war with each other, until the
+unhappy Syrians called upon Tigra´nes, king of Armenia, to end their
+miseries.
+
+=48.= Tigranes governed, wisely and well, fourteen years (B. C. 83-69);
+but having at length incurred the vengeance of the Romans, by rendering
+aid to his father-in-law, Mithridates of Pontus, he was forced to give up
+all except his hereditary kingdom. Four years longer (B. C. 69-65), Syria
+continued its separate existence, under Antiochus XIII. (Asiaticus), the
+son of Eusebes. At the end of that time the kingdom was subdued by Pompey
+the Great, and became a Roman province.
+
+
+RECAPITULATION.
+
+    Seleucus I. (B. C. 312-281) extended his empire beyond the
+    Indus, built many cities, gained all Asia Minor by the
+    defeat of Lysimachus. Antiochus I. (B. C. 280-261) lost the
+    territories of Pergamus and Galatia; Antiochus II. (261-246),
+    those of Parthia and Bactria. Under Seleucus II. (246-226), the
+    greater part of the empire was conquered by Ptolemy, but soon
+    recovered. Seleucus III. reigned three years (B. C. 226-223).
+    Antiochus III. (B C. 223-187) quelled the revolts of Molo
+    and Achæus; had wars with the kings of Parthia and Bactria;
+    penetrated India as far as the Ganges; punished the pirates of
+    the Persian Gulf; wrested from Egypt the provinces of Syria
+    and Palestine; overran Asia Minor, and invaded Greece. He
+    was defeated by the Romans, twice by sea and twice by land.
+    Seleucus IV. (B. C. 187-176) was murdered by his treasurer,
+    Heliodorus. Antiochus IV. (B. C. 176-164) was prevented by the
+    Romans from conquering Egypt; excited by his persecutions a
+    revolt in Judæa, which became independent under the Maccabees.
+    The short reign of Antiochus V. (B. C. 164-162) was filled
+    with wars of the regents. His uncle, Demetrius I. (B. C.
+    162-151), had unsuccessful wars with the Jews and Cappadocians;
+    was conquered by Alexander Balas, who reigned B. C. 151-146.
+    Demetrius II. had a disputed reign (B. C. 146-140); a ten
+    years’ imprisonment in Parthia (B. C. 140-130), while his wife
+    and his brother, Antiochus VII., ruled Syria; and a second
+    contest with a pretender, B. C. 129-126. Antiochus VIII. (B.
+    C. 126-96) reigned five years jointly with his mother, seven
+    years alone, and eighteen years side by side with his brother,
+    Antiochus IX. (Cyzicenus), who ruled Cœle-Syria and Phœnicia,
+    B. C. 111-96. Seleucus V. (B. C. 96, 95) conquered Cyzicenus,
+    but carried on the same war with his son, Eusebes, until his
+    own violent death. His younger brothers fought first Eusebes,
+    and then each other, until Tigranes, king of Armenia, conquered
+    the country and ruled it fourteen years (B. C. 83-69).
+    Antiochus XIII. the last of the Seleucidæ, reigned B. C. 69-65.
+
+
+II. EGYPT UNDER THE PTOLEMIES. B. C. 323-30.
+
+=49.= The Macedonian Kingdom in Egypt presented a marked and brilliant
+contrast to the native empires and the Persian satrapy. By removing the
+capital to Alexandria, the conqueror had provided for free intercourse
+with foreign countries, and the old exclusiveness of the Egyptians was
+forever broken down. While Palestine was attached to this kingdom,
+especial favor was shown to the Jews; and in the Greek conquerors, the
+native Egyptians, and the Jewish merchants, the three families of Shem,
+Ham, and Japhet were reunited as they had never been since the dispersion
+at Babel. The Egyptians, who had abhorred the Persian dominion, hailed
+the Macedonians as deliverers; the common people engaged with zeal in the
+new industries that promised wealth as the reward of enterprise, and the
+learned class found their delight in the intellectual society, as well as
+the rare treasures of literature and art, that filled the court of the
+Ptolemies.
+
+=50.= Ptolemy I. (Soter[59]) received the Egyptian province immediately
+upon the death of Alexander, and proceeded to organize it with great
+energy and wisdom. Desiring to make Egypt a maritime power, he sought at
+once to conquer Palestine, Phœnicia, and Cyprus, whose forests were as
+needful to him for ship-building as their sea-faring people for sailors.
+The two countries on the mainland were occupied by Ptolemy in 320 B. C.,
+and remained six years in his possession. They were lost in the war with
+Antigonus, and only fully regained after the battle of Ipsus, B. C. 301.
+Cyprus was the scene of many conflicts, of which the great naval battle
+off Salamis, B. C. 306, was the most severe and decisive. It was then
+lost to Egypt, but in B. C. 294 or 293 it was regained, and continued her
+most valuable foreign possession as long as the kingdom existed. Cyrene
+and all the Libyan tribes between it and Egypt were also annexed by
+Ptolemy.
+
+=51.= Few changes were made in the internal government of Egypt. The
+country, as before, was divided into nomes, each having its own ruler,
+who was usually a native Egyptian. The old laws and worship prevailed.
+The Ptolemies rebuilt the temples, paid especial honors to the Apis, and
+made the most of all points of resemblance between the Greek and Egyptian
+religions. A magnificent temple to Sera´pis was erected at Alexandria.
+The priests retained their privileges and honors, being exempt from
+all taxation. The army was chiefly, and its officers wholly, Greek or
+Macedonian, and all civil dignities of any importance were also filled
+by the conquering people. The Greek inhabitants of the cities alone
+possessed entire freedom in the management of their affairs.
+
+=52.= Ptolemy followed the liberal policy of Alexander toward men of
+genius and learning. He collected a vast and precious library, which
+he placed in a building connected with the palace; and he founded the
+“Museum,” which drew students and professors from all parts of the
+world. No spot ever witnessed more literary and intellectual activity
+than Alexandria, the University of the East. There Euclid first unfolded
+the “Elements of Geometry”; Eratos´thenes discoursed of Geography;
+Hipparchus, of Astronomy; Aristoph´anes and Aristar´chus, of Criticism;
+Man´etho, of History; while Apel´les and Antiph´ilus added their
+paintings, and Phile´tas, Callim´achus, and Apollonius their poems,
+for the delight of a court whose monarch was himself an author, and in
+which talent constituted rank. Alexandria during this reign was adorned
+with many costly and magnificent works. The royal palace; the Museum;
+the great light-house on the island of Pharos, which has given its name
+to many similar constructions in modern times; the mole or causeway
+which connected this island with the mainland; the Hip´podrome, and the
+Mausole´um, containing the tomb of Alexander, were among the chief.
+Ptolemy Soter was distinguished by his truth and magnanimity from most of
+the princes and generals of his age. His unlimited power never led him to
+cruelty or self-indulgence. He died at the age of eighty-four, B. C. 283.
+
+=53.= Ptolemy II. (Philadelphus), through the influence of his mother,
+had been raised to the throne two years before his father’s death,
+instead of his elder brother, Ceraunus. He had been carefully educated
+by several of the learned men whom the patronage of his father had drawn
+to the court; and he continued, on a still more liberal scale, that
+encouragement of science and literature which had already made Alexandria
+a successful rival of Athens. He so greatly increased the Alexandrian
+Library that he is often mentioned as its founder. Agents were appointed
+to search Europe and Asia for every literary work of value, and to secure
+it at any cost. An embassy was sent to the high priest at Jerusalem to
+bring a copy of the Holy Scriptures, together with a company of learned
+men who could translate them into Greek. The translators were entertained
+by the king with the greatest honor. The first five books were completed
+in the reign of Philadelphus, the rest were translated by order of the
+later Ptolemies; and the entire version—still an invaluable treasure
+to Biblical scholars—is known as the Sep´tuagint, either from the
+seventy translators, or because it was authorized by the San´hedrim of
+Alexandria, which consisted of the same number.
+
+=54.= Ptolemy II. was engaged in various wars; first for the furtherance
+of the Achæan League, and the protection of the Greeks against Macedonian
+aggressions; afterward against his half-brother, Magas, king of Cyrene,
+and the kings of Syria, with whom Magas was allied. He gained possession
+of the whole coast of Asia Minor, with many of the Cyclades. By the
+wisdom of his internal policy, Egypt was meanwhile raised to her highest
+pitch of wealth and prosperity. He re-opened the canal made by Rameses
+the Great (see Book I, §§ 153, 154), and built the port of Arsinoë, on
+the site of the modern Suez. To avoid the dangers of Red Sea navigation,
+he founded two cities, named Berenice, farther to the southward, and
+connected one of them by a highway with Coptos on the Nile. Egypt thus
+reaped the full commercial advantage of her position midway between the
+East and the West. For centuries the rich productions of India, Arabia,
+and Ethiopia were conveyed along these various highways to Alexandria,
+whence they were distributed to Syria, Greece, and Rome. The revenues of
+Egypt were equal to those which Darius had derived from the vast empire
+of Persia.
+
+=55.= The personal character of Philadelphus was less admirable than that
+of his father. He killed two of his brothers, banished a most faithful
+counselor, and by marrying his own sister, Arsinoë, introduced a custom
+which caused untold misery and mischief in the kingdom. He died B. C.
+247, having reigned thirty-eight years, or thirty-six from the death of
+his father.
+
+=56.= Ptolemy III. (Euergetes) was the most enterprising monarch of his
+race, and pushed the boundaries of his kingdom to their greatest extent.
+He gained the Cyr´ena´ica by marriage with the daughter of Magas, and
+annexed portions of Ethiopia and Arabia. In his war against Syria to
+avenge his sister Berenice (see §§ 32, 33), he even passed the Euphrates
+and conquered all the country to the borders of Bactria; but he lost all
+this by his sudden recall to Egypt. His conquests on the sea-board, which
+could be defended by his fleet, remained permanently in his possession.
+All the shores of the Mediterranean, from Cyrene to the Hellespont,
+with many important islands, and even a portion of Europe, including
+Lysimachia in Thrace, belonged to his dominion.
+
+He continued the patronage of art and letters, and enriched the
+Alexandrian libraries with many rare manuscripts. The Egyptians were
+still more gratified by the recovery of some ancient images of their
+gods, which had been carried away to Assyria by Sargon or Esarhaddon,
+and were brought back by Ptolemy from his eastern campaign. Euergetes
+died B. C. 222, after a prosperous reign of twenty-five years; and with
+him ended the glory of the Macedonian monarchy in Egypt. “Historians
+reckon nine Ptolemies after Euergetes. Except Philome´tor, who was mild
+and humane; Lath´yrus, who was amiable but weak; and Ptolemy XII.,
+who was merely young and incompetent, they were all, almost equally,
+detestable.”
+
+=57.= Ptolemy IV. was suspected of having murdered his father, and
+therefore took the surname Philopator to allay suspicion. He began his
+reign, however, by murdering his mother, his brother, and his uncle,
+and marrying his sister Arsinoë. A few years later she, too, was put
+to death, at the instigation of a worthless favorite of the king. The
+control of affairs was left to Sosib´ius, a minister who was equally
+wicked and incompetent. Through his neglect, the army became weakened by
+lack of discipline, and the Syrians seized the opportunity to recover
+their lost possessions. They were defeated, however, at Raph´ia, and
+gained only their port of Seleucia. A revolt of the native Egyptians
+occupied many years of this reign.
+
+=58.= Ptolemy V. (Epiphanes) was only five years old at his father’s
+death. The kings of Syria and Macedon plotted to divide his dominions
+between them, and the only resource of the incompetent ministers was to
+call the Romans to their aid. All the foreign dependencies, except Cyprus
+and the Cyrenaica, were lost; but by the good management of M. Lep´idus,
+Egypt was saved to the little Ptolemy. Aristom´enes, an Acarnanian,
+succeeded Lepidus as regent, and his energy and justice restored for a
+time the prosperity of the kingdom. At the age of fourteen, Epiphanes
+was declared of age, and the government was thenceforth in his name. Few
+events of his reign are known. He married Cleopatra of Syria, and soon
+after poisoned his late guardian, Aristomenes. His plans for a war with
+Syria were prevented by his own assassination, B. C. 181.
+
+=59.= Ptolemy VI. (Philometor) became king at the age of seven, under
+the vigorous regency of his mother, Cleopatra. She died B. C. 173, and
+the power passed into the hands of two weak and corrupt ministers, who
+involved the kingdom in war, and almost in ruin, by their rash invasion
+of Syria. Antiochus IV. defeated them at Pelusium, and advancing to
+Memphis, gained possession of the young king, whom he used as a tool for
+the reduction of the whole country. The Alexandrians crowned Ptolemy
+Physcon, a younger brother of the king, and successfully withstood the
+besieging army of Antiochus. The Romans now interposing, he was obliged
+to retreat.
+
+The two brothers agreed to reign together, and prepared for war with
+Antiochus. He captured Cyprus, invaded Egypt a second time, and would
+doubtless have added the entire dominion of the Ptolemies to his own,
+if the Romans, who claimed the protectorate of Egypt, had not again
+interfered and commanded him to withdraw. The Syrian king reluctantly
+obeyed, and the brothers reigned four years in peace. They then
+quarreled, and Philometor went to plead his cause before the Roman
+Senate. The Romans re-instated him in the possession of Egypt, giving
+to his brother Physcon Libya and the Cyrenaica. Dissatisfied with his
+portion, Physcon went to Rome and obtained a further grant of Cyprus; but
+Philometor refused to give it up, and the brothers were preparing for
+war, when a revolt in Cyrene engaged the attention of its king. After
+nine years he renewed his claim, and obtained from Rome a small squadron
+to aid in the capture of the island. He was defeated and made prisoner by
+his brother; but his life was spared, and he was restored to his kingdom
+of Cyrene. Philometor fell, B. C. 146, in a battle near Antioch, with
+Alexander Balas, whom he had himself encouraged to assume the crown of
+Syria. (See § 42.)
+
+=60.= Ptolemy VII. (Eupator) had reigned but a few days when he was
+murdered by his uncle, Ptolemy Physcon, who, aided by the Romans, united
+in himself the two kingdoms, Egypt and Cyrene. This monster created such
+terror by his inhuman cruelties, and such disgust by his excesses, that
+his capital became half depopulated, and the citizens who remained were
+almost constantly in revolt. At last he was forced to take refuge in
+Cyprus, the crown remaining to his sister, Cleopatra. To wound the queen
+most deeply, he murdered her son, and sent her the head and hands of the
+victim. The Alexandrians were so enraged by this atrocity, that they
+fought bravely for Cleopatra; but when she applied for aid to the king of
+Syria, they became alarmed and recalled Physcon, after an exile of three
+years. Warned by his punishment, Physcon now desisted from his cruelties,
+and devoted himself to literary pursuits, even gaining some reputation as
+an author.
+
+=61.= Ptolemy VIII. (Lath´yrus) succeeded his father in Egypt, while his
+brother Alexander reigned in Cyprus, and A´pion, another son of Physcon,
+received the Cyrenaica. Cleopatra, the queen mother, had the real power.
+After ten years, Lathyrus offended his mother by pursuing a policy of
+his own, and was compelled to change places with Alexander, who reigned
+eighteen years in Egypt, with the title of Ptolemy IX. Cleopatra was
+then put to death, Alexander expelled, and Ptolemy Lathyrus recalled. He
+reigned eight years as sole monarch, defeated Alexander, who attempted to
+regain Cyprus, and punished a revolt in Thebes by a siege of three years,
+ending with the destruction of the city, B. C. 89-86.
+
+=62.= Berenice, the only legitimate child of Lathyrus, reigned six
+months alone, and was then married and associated upon the throne with
+her cousin, Ptolemy X., a son of Alexander, whose claims were supported
+by the Romans. Within three weeks he put his wife to death, and the
+Alexandrians, revolting, slew him in the gymnasium, B. C. 80. Fifteen
+years of great confusion followed, during which the succession was
+disputed by at least five claimants, and Cyprus became a separate kingdom.
+
+=63.= Ptolemy XI. (Aule´tes, or the Flute-Player) then obtained the
+crown, and dated his reign from the death of his half-sister, Berenice.
+In 59 B. C., he was acknowledged by the Romans; but by that time his
+oppressive and profligate government had so disgusted the people, that
+they drove him from the kingdom. He took refuge four years in Rome, while
+his two daughters nominally governed Egypt, first jointly, and then the
+younger alone, after her sister’s death. In 55 B. C. Auletes returned,
+supported by a Roman army, put to death his daughter, who had opposed his
+restoration, and reigned under Roman protection three and a half years.
+He died, B. C. 51, leaving four children: the famous Cleopatra, aged
+seventeen; Ptolemy XII.; another Ptolemy, and a daughter Arsinoë, still
+younger.
+
+[Illustration: Coin of Antony and Cleopatra, twice the size.]
+
+=64.= The princess Cleopatra received the crown under Roman patronage,
+in conjunction with the elder Ptolemy. The brother and sister quarreled,
+and Cleopatra was driven into Syria. Here she met Julius Cæsar, and by
+her talents and accomplishments gained great ascendency over his mind. By
+his aid Ptolemy was conquered and slain, and Cleopatra established in the
+kingdom. She removed her younger brother by poison, and had thenceforth
+no rival. With consummate ability, mixed with the unscrupulous cruelty
+of her race, she reigned seventeen years in great prosperity. Cæsar
+was her protector while he lived, and Antony then became her slave,
+sacrificing all his interests, and his honor as a Roman and a general, to
+her slightest caprices. In the civil wars of Rome, Antony was at length
+defeated at Actium; Cleopatra committed suicide, and her kingdom became a
+Roman province, B. C. 30.
+
+=65.= The kingdom of the Ptolemies had continued 293 years, from the
+death of Alexander to that of Cleopatra. During 101 years, under the
+first three kings, it was the most flourishing, well organized, and
+prosperous of the Macedonian monarchies; the nearly two centuries which
+remained were among the most degraded periods in the history of the human
+race.
+
+
+RECAPITULATION.
+
+    Prosperity of Egypt under the Ptolemies. Concourse of races at
+    Alexandria. Ptolemy I. (B. C. 323-283) conquered Palestine,
+    Phœnicia, Cyprus, and the African coast as far as Cyrene. Old
+    laws and worship retained. Alexandrian Library and Museum,
+    professors and public works. Ptolemy Philadelphus (B. C.
+    283-247) ordered a Greek version of the Hebrew Scriptures;
+    constructed cities, roads, and canals for purposes of
+    commerce. Acquisitions of Ptolemy III. (B. C. 247-222). Rapid
+    conquests in Asia, speedily lost. Collection of manuscripts
+    and recovery of images. Decline of the Ptolemaic kingdom.
+    Crimes of Ptolemy IV. (B. C. 222-205). Victory at Raphia, B.
+    C. 217. Roman interference during the minority of Ptolemy V.
+    (B. C. 205-181). Ptolemy VI. (B. C. 181-146) taken by Antiochus
+    IV., of Syria. His brother Physcon crowned. Rome protected
+    Egyptian dependencies against Syria, and divided them between
+    the brothers. Ptolemy VII. was murdered by his uncle, Ptolemy
+    Physcon, who reigned B. C. 146-117. He was exiled for his
+    crimes, but recalled in three years. Ptolemy VIII. and his
+    brother Alexander reigned alternately in Egypt and Cyprus
+    while their mother lived (B. C. 117-89). After her death, the
+    former was sole monarch until B. C. 81. Berenice reigned six
+    months (B. C. 81, 80), and was then murdered by her husband,
+    Ptolemy X. He was slain by the Alexandrians. Ptolemy XI. (B. C.
+    80-51) made good his claim after fifteen years’ anarchy; was
+    acknowledged by the Romans, but expelled (B. C. 59-55) by his
+    subjects; returned to reign under Roman protection. Cleopatra
+    poisoned her two brothers, and by favor of Cæsar and Antony
+    kept her kingdom twenty-one years, B. C. 51-30.
+
+
+III. MACEDONIA AND GREECE.
+
+=66.= Upon the death of Alexander, the greater part of Greece revolted
+against Macedon, Athens, as of old, being the leader. Antipater, the
+Macedonian regent, was defeated near Thermopylæ, and besieged in Lamia,
+in Thessaly. The confederates were afterward worsted at Cranon, and the
+good management of Antipater dissolved the league by treating with its
+members separately, and offering the most lenient terms to all except the
+leaders. Athens suffered the punishment she had often inflicted. Twelve
+thousand of her citizens were forcibly removed to Thrace, Illyria, Italy,
+and Africa, only nine thousand of the wealthier sort being left, who
+willingly submitted to the Macedonian supremacy. Demosthenes, with the
+principal members of his party, were executed, and the last remains of
+Athenian independence destroyed.
+
+=67.= The wars of the generals and the intrigues of the Macedonian
+princesses belong to Period II. (See §§ 19-25.) Three years after the
+battle of Ipsus, Cassander died, B. C. 298, leaving the crown to his
+son, Philip IV. The young king reigned less than a year, and his mother,
+Thessalonica, then divided Macedonia between her two remaining sons,
+Antipater and Alexander. The former, being dissatisfied with his portion,
+murdered his mother and called in his father-in-law, Lysimachus, to aid
+him in gaining the whole. His brother, at the same time, asked aid of
+Demetrius, who reigned in Greece, and of Pyrrhus, king of Epirus. With
+their help he drove Antipater out of Macedonia; but he gained nothing by
+the victory, for Demetrius had undertaken the war solely with the view of
+placing himself upon the throne, which he accomplished by the murder of
+Alexander. Antipater II. was put to death the same year by Lysimachus, B.
+C. 294.
+
+=68.= The kingdom now included Thessaly, Attica, and the greater part
+of the Peloponnesus, Pyrrhus having received several countries on the
+western coast of Greece. Demetrius, however, sacrificed all his dominions
+to his unbounded ambition and conceit. He failed in an attack on Pyrrhus,
+and being invaded both from the east and west, was compelled to abandon
+Macedonia, B. C. 287. In a later expedition into Asia, he became the
+prisoner of Seleucus, and died in the third year of his captivity. (See §
+29.)
+
+=69.= Pyrrhus remained king of the greater part of Macedonia nearly a
+year, but was then driven back to his hereditary kingdom by Lysimachus,
+who thus extended his own dominions from the Halys to Mount Pindus, B.
+C. 286. The capital of this consolidated kingdom was Lysimachia, in the
+Chersonese, and Macedonia for five years was merely a province. The
+nobles, becoming discontented, called in Seleucus, who defeated and
+killed Lysimachus, B. C. 281.
+
+=70.= For a few weeks the aged Seleucus governed nearly all the dominions
+of Alexander, except Egypt. He was then assassinated by Ptolemy
+Ceraunus,[60] who became king in his stead. The Egyptian prince was soon
+overwhelmed by a new peril in the invasion of the Gauls. This restless
+people had been pouring for nearly a century into northern Italy, where
+they had driven out the Etruscans from the plain of the Po, and given
+their own name to Gallia Cisalpina. Now turning eastward, they occupied
+the plain of the Danube, and pressed southward as far as Illyricum,
+whence they proceeded in three divisions, one falling upon the Thracians,
+another upon the Pæonians, and a third upon the Macedonians. The last
+army encountered Ptolemy Ceraunus, who was defeated and slain in battle.
+For two years they ravaged Macedonia, while Melea´ger, a brother of
+Ceraunus, and Antipater, a nephew of Cassander, successively occupied the
+throne, B. C. 279-277.
+
+=71.= Brennus, a Gallic leader, with more than 200,000 men, marched
+through Thessaly, laying all waste with fire and sword. A furious battle
+took place at Thermopylæ, and the Gauls, at last, only gained the rear
+of the Greek army by the same mountain path which had admitted the
+troops of Xerxes two hundred years before. Brennus pushed on to plunder
+Delphi, but an army of 4,000, well posted upon the heights of Parnassus,
+withstood him with success; and a violent wintry storm, which confused
+and benumbed the assailants, convinced devout Greeks that Apollo was once
+more defending his sanctuary. The Gallic leader was severely wounded,
+and unwilling to survive his disgrace, put an end to his own life. His
+army broke up into a multitude of marauding bands, without order or
+discipline, and the greater part perished from cold, hunger, or battle.
+Their countrymen, however, established a kingdom in Thrace; and another
+band, invited into Asia Minor by Nicomedes, became possessed of a large
+tract of country, which received their name as Gala´tia.
+
+=72.= During the disorders in Macedonia, Sosthenes, an officer of noble
+birth, had been placed at the head of affairs, instead of Antipater, who
+was deposed for his incapacity. After the Gauls had retired, Antipater
+regained the throne. But Antigonus Gonatas, who had maintained himself
+as an independent prince in central and southern Greece, ever since the
+captivity of his father, Demetrius, now appeared with an army composed
+mainly of Gallic mercenaries, defeated Antipater, and gained possession
+of Macedonia. Antiochus Soter made war against him, but was opposed
+with so much energy that he acknowledged Antigonus as king, and gave
+him his sister Phila in marriage. But Antigonus was never acceptable to
+either Greeks or Macedonians, and when Pyrrhus, the most popular prince
+of his age, returned from Italy, the whole Macedonian army was ready to
+desert to his side. Antigonus was defeated, and for a year or more was a
+fugitive, B. C. 273-271.
+
+=73.= Pyrrhus was the greatest warrior and one of the best princes of
+his time—a time from which truth and fidelity seemed almost to have
+disappeared. He might have become the most powerful monarch in the world,
+if his perseverance had been equal to his talents and ambition. But
+instead of organizing the territory he possessed, he was ever thirsting
+for new conquests. In a war upon southern Greece he was repulsed from
+Sparta, and in attempting to seize Argos by night, he was killed by a
+tile thrown by a woman from a house-top.
+
+=74.= Antigonus Gonatas now returned and reigned thirty-two years. He
+extended his power over most of the Peloponnesus, and waged war five
+years against the Athenians, who were aided by Sparta and Egypt. In the
+meantime, Antigonus was recalled by the incursion of Alexander, son of
+Pyrrhus, who was carrying all before him, and had been acknowledged king
+of Macedon. Demetrius, son of Antigonus, chased him out of Macedonia,
+and even out of Epirus; and though he was soon restored to his paternal
+dominion, he remained thenceforth at peace with his neighbors. Athens
+fell in 263 B. C. Nineteen years later, Antigonus gained possession of
+Corinth; but this was the last of his successes.
+
+=75.= The Achæan League, which had been suppressed by the immediate
+successors of Alexander, had soon revived, and extended itself beyond the
+limits of Achaia, receiving cities from all the Peloponnesus. In 243 B.
+C., Ara´tus, its head, by a sudden and well-concerted movement captured
+Corinth, which immediately joined the League. Several important cities
+followed the example; and Antigonus, who had grown old and cautious,
+was unable to oppose them, except by stirring up Ætolia to attack the
+Achæans. He died B. C. 239, having lived eighty and reigned thirty-seven
+years.
+
+=76.= Demetrius II. allied himself with Epirus, and broke friendship with
+the Ætolians, who were enemies of that kingdom. The consequence was, that
+the Ætolians made a junction with the Achæan League to oppose him. He
+was able to defeat them in Thessaly and Bœotia, but south of the isthmus
+the ascendency of Macedon was at an end. The Romans now for the first
+time interfered in Grecian affairs, by requiring the Ætolian confederacy
+to abstain from aggressions upon Acarnania. Corcyra, Apollonia, and
+Epidamnus fell into their hands, B. C. 228, a year after the death of
+Demetrius II.
+
+=77.= Philip V. was but eight years old when he inherited his father’s
+dominions, under the guardianship of his kinsman, Antigonus Doson.
+During this regency great changes took place in Sparta, which led to
+a brief return of her old energy. The laws of Lycurgus had continued
+in force more than five centuries, but the time of their fitness and
+usefulness had passed away. The rigid separation which they made between
+the different classes, now limited the number of true Spartans to 700,
+while the property tests were so severe, that only 100 enjoyed the full
+rights of citizens. The wealth of the community was concentrated in the
+hands of a few, who violated the old law by living in great luxury. In
+this condition, Sparta was unable even to defend herself against Illyrian
+pirates or Ætolian marauders, still less to exert any influence, as of
+old, in the general affairs of Greece.
+
+The reforms proposed B. C. 230, by Agis IV., and carried, four years
+later, by Cleomenes, added 3,800 _periϫci_ to the number of citizens,
+and re-divided the lands of the state between these and 15,000 selected
+Laconians. Debts were abolished, and the old simple and frugal customs
+of Lycurgus restored. Sparta was now able to defeat the forces of the
+Achæan League, and to draw from it, into her own alliance, most of the
+Peloponnesian towns out of Achaia. But Aratus, the head of the League,
+violated all its principles by calling in Antigonus, the Macedonian
+regent, and putting him in possession of Acro-Corinthus. In the battle of
+Sella´sia, B. C. 221, Cleomenes was defeated, and forced to take refuge
+at the court of Ptolemy Philopator. The League which had been created
+to defend the liberties of Greece, had betrayed them; and there was no
+longer any hope either of restoring the glories of Sparta, or of checking
+the overwhelming power of Macedon and Rome.
+
+=78.= Antigonus died B. C. 220, and Philip, now seventeen years of age,
+assumed the government. The great advantages gained during the regency
+were soon lost by his rashness. He hastily allied himself with Hannibal
+against Rome, and then with Antiochus of Syria against Egypt. (See §§ 37,
+59.) His first war, however, was against Ætolia, which had sprung to arms
+immediately upon his accession, hoping at once to overbalance its rival,
+Achaia, and to increase its own territories at the expense of Macedon. As
+early as the time of Alexander the Great, the Ætolian tribes had formed
+themselves into a federal republic, which occupied a similar position
+in central Greece to that of the Achæan League in the Peloponnesus. By
+the subjection or annexation of several states, it was now extended from
+the Ionian to the Ægean Sea. Philip overran Ætolia with great energy,
+captured its seat of government, and by his brilliant successes showed a
+military talent worthy of the early days of Macedonian conquest. But the
+news of a great victory gained by Hannibal at Lake Thrasyme´ne, recalled
+his attention to the object of his chief ambition, a war with Rome.
+
+=79.= The first movement in the new war was the siege of Apollonia, a
+Roman colony in Illyricum. Philip hoped to drive the Romans from the
+western coast of Greece, and thus prepare the way for an invasion of
+Italy. His camp was surprised at night by Vale´rius, and he was forced
+to burn his ships and retreat in all haste. The Ætolians and all their
+allies—Sparta, Elis, and the kings of Illyricum and Pergamus—took sides
+with Rome, and carried the war into Macedonia, forcing Philip to ask
+the aid of Carthage. The Romans captured Zacynthus, Ne´sos and Œniadæ,
+Antic´yra in Locris, and the island of Ægina, and presented all to the
+Ætolians.
+
+At this crisis, Philopϫmen, the greatest Greek of his time, became
+commander of the Achæan cavalry, and, two years later, the head of the
+League. He improved the drill and tactics of the army, and infused new
+spirit into the whole nation. His invasion of Elis, in concert with
+Philip, was unsuccessful, and the king was defeated by Sulpic´ius Galba;
+but, in 207 B. C., the great victory of Mantinea placed the Macedonians
+and Achæans on a more equal footing with the Romans. Peace was made on
+terms honorable to all parties.
+
+=80.= Philip, spoiled by ambition, had become unscrupulous and reckless.
+Instead of securing what he already possessed, he continually grasped
+after new conquests; and disregarding the storm that was sure to burst
+upon him sooner or later from the west, he now turned to the east and
+south. He made a treaty with Antiochus the Great for a partition of the
+Egyptian dependencies, by which he was to receive Thrace and the western
+part of Asia Minor. This led at once to war with At´talus of Pergamus,
+an ally of Rome, as well as with Rhodes, which took the part of Egypt.
+His fleet was signally defeated off Chios, B. C. 201; and though he
+afterward gained a victory at Lade, his losses were not retrieved. He
+captured, however, the important islands of Samos, Thasos, and Chios,
+with the province of Caria, and several places in Ionia.
+
+=81.= The great disaster of the war was the rupture of the treaty with
+Rome. That power interfered in behalf of her allies, Egypt, Rhodes, and
+Pergamus; and when Philip rejected all reasonable demands, she declared
+the peace at an end. In the second war with Rome, Greece was at first
+divided into three parties, some states remaining neutral, some siding
+with Rome, and some with Macedon. But when the consul, Fla´mini´nus,
+proclaimed liberty to all the Greeks, and declared himself their champion
+against the long detested power of Macedon, nearly every state went over
+to the Roman side. On the land, Macedonia was attacked by Sulpicius
+Galba, aided by the Illyrians and Dardanians; while by sea, a Roman
+fleet, increased by Rhodian and Pergamene vessels, threatened the coast.
+Several important towns in Eubœa were taken, but the great decisive
+battle was fought (B. C. 197) at Cynocephalæ, where Philip was defeated
+and his power utterly prostrated. He was compelled to abandon all the
+Greek cities which he held, either in Europe or Asia, to surrender
+his entire navy, and to pay a war indemnity of one thousand talents
+($1,250,000).
+
+=82.= In settling the affairs of Greece, the Romans subdivided the
+states into still smaller sections than of old, and guaranteed perfect
+independence to each. The two leagues of Achaia and Ætolia were, however,
+left to balance each other. The states were generally satisfied with the
+arrangement, but the Ætolians stirred up a new war in the very year of
+Flamininus’s departure, and called in Antiochus from Asia to their aid.
+He was defeated at Thermopylæ by the Romans, B. C. 191, and the great
+battle of Magnesia, in the following year, ended all hope of resistance
+to the power of Rome. The Achæan League, sustained by the wise and able
+management of Philopœmen, gained in power by the weakening of its rival,
+and now included the whole Peloponnesus, with Megaris and some other
+territories beyond the peninsula.
+
+=83.= Philip had aided the Romans in the recent war, and had been
+permitted to extend his dominions over part of Thrace, and southward
+into Thessaly. But when peace was secured, he was required to give
+up all except his hereditary kingdom. Demetrius, the second son of
+Philip, had long been a hostage at Rome, and acted now as his father’s
+ambassador. The Roman Senate conceded many points, for the sake of the
+warm friendship which it professed for this young prince; but its favor
+only aroused the suspicions of his father and the jealousy of his elder
+brother, Per´seus. The latter forged letters to convince his father
+of the treason of Demetrius, and the innocent youth was put to death
+by order of the king. But the grief and remorse of Philip exceeded
+all bounds, when he learned the deception that had been practiced. He
+believed that he was haunted by the spirit of Demetrius, and it was agony
+of mind, rather than bodily illness, that soon occasioned his death.
+
+An ancient historian remarked that there were few monarchs of whom more
+good or more evil could justly be said, than of Philip V. If the promise
+of his youth had been fulfilled, and the opportunities of his reign
+improved, he would have done great things for Macedonia and Greece. But
+his talents became obscured by drunkenness and profligacy, his natural
+generosity was spoiled by the habit of supreme command, and he became in
+later years a gloomy, unscrupulous, and suspicious tyrant.
+
+=84.= Philip had designed to punish the crime of Perseus by leaving
+the throne to a distant relative, Antigonus; but the sudden death of
+the father, while Antigonus was absent from court, enabled the son to
+make himself king without opposition. He pursued with much diligence
+the policy of Philip, in preparing Macedonia for a second struggle with
+Rome. The revenues were increased by a careful working of the mines;
+the population, wasted by so many wars, was recruited by colonies of
+Thracians and others; and close alliances were made with the kings of
+Asia, and with the hardy barbarians of the north, Gauls, Illyrians, and
+Germans, whose aid might be invaluable when the decisive moment should
+arrive. But Perseus failed to unite the states of Greece, in which a
+large party already preferred his supremacy to that of Rome; and instead
+of using his treasures to satisfy and confirm his allies, he hoarded them
+penuriously, only to enrich his enemies at the end of the war.
+
+=85.= In the spring of 171 B. C., the Romans landed in Epirus, and spent
+some months in winning the Greek states to their side by money and
+influence. In the autumn they met Perseus in Thessaly, with nearly equal
+forces, and were defeated. The Macedonian made no use, however, of his
+victory, and nothing of importance was done for two years. In 168 B. C.,
+L. Æmil´ius Paulus assumed the command, and forced Perseus to a battle
+near Pydna. Here the fate of Macedon was finally decided. Perseus was
+defeated and fled to Samothrace, where he was soon captured with all
+his treasures. He was taken to Rome, and compelled to walk in chains in
+the splendid triumph of Æmilius. After several years, the last of the
+Macedonian kings died in imprisonment at Alba.
+
+Macedonia was not immediately made a Roman province, but was divided into
+four distinct states, which were forbidden all intercourse with each
+other. The people were consoled by a great reduction in the taxes, the
+Romans demanding only half the amount which they had been accustomed to
+pay their native kings.
+
+=86.= In Greece, all confederacies, except the Achæan League, were
+dissolved. Achaia had been the constant friend of Rome during the war;
+but to insure its submission, one thousand of the principal citizens
+were accused of having secretly aided Perseus, and were carried to Italy
+for trial. They were imprisoned seventeen years without a hearing; and
+then, when all but three hundred had died, these were sent back, in the
+certainty that their resentment against Rome would lead them to some rash
+act of hostility.
+
+All happened as the Romans had foreseen. The three of the exiles who
+were most embittered by this unprovoked outrage came into power, and
+their enmity gave to their foes what they most desired, a pretext for
+an armed invasion of the territories of the League. In 146 B. C., war
+was declared. One of the Achæan leaders was disastrously defeated and
+slain near Thermopylæ; another, with the remnant of the army, made a last
+stand at Corinth, but he was defeated and the city was taken, plundered,
+and destroyed. Within a few years Greece was placed under proconsular
+government, like other provinces of Rome. It remained nearly sixteen
+centuries a part of that great empire, which, though driven from Italy,
+maintained its existence in the East, until it was overthrown by the
+Turks, A. D. 1453.
+
+
+RECAPITULATION.
+
+    Lamian War ended in the subjection of Greece to Macedonia.
+    Cassander reigned B. C. 316-297. Death of all his sons within
+    three years, left the crown to Demetrius, son of Antigonus,
+    (B. C. 294-287,) who lost it by rash enterprises, and died
+    a prisoner in Asia. Pyrrhus, the Epirote, reigned a year.
+    Macedonia was then annexed to Thrace (B. C. 286-281). On the
+    death of Lysimachus, it fell to Seleucus, who was murdered
+    in turn by Ptolemy Ceraunus. In the reign of Ptolemy (B.
+    C. 281-279), Meleager, Antipater II., and Sosthenes (B. C.
+    279-277), the Gauls ravaged Macedonia and Greece, gained
+    Thermopylæ, but were defeated at Delphi. Antigonus, son of
+    Demetrius (B. C. 277-273), was expelled by Pyrrhus, whose
+    second reign lasted B. C. 273-271, but who was killed at Argos,
+    and Antigonus restored (B. C. 271-239). He captured Athens and
+    Corinth; the latter was retaken by the Achæan League. Demetrius
+    II. (B. C. 239-229) allied himself with Epirus against the
+    Achæan and Ætolian Leagues. First interference of Rome in
+    Grecian affairs, B. C. 238. Regency of Antigonus Doson, B. C.
+    229-220. Reform and renewed energy in Sparta. Macedonians,
+    in alliance with the Achæan League, defeated the Spartans at
+    Sellasia, B. C. 221. Independent reign of Philip V., B. C.
+    220-179. His wars against Ætolia, Rome, Egypt. Romans, in a
+    second war, proclaimed liberty to the Greeks; overthrew Philip
+    at Cynocephalæ, B. C. 197; subdivided and reorganized the
+    Grecian states. The Ætolians provoked another war, their ally,
+    Antiochus, was defeated at Thermopylæ and Magnesia. Death of
+    Prince Demetrius and his father. Efforts of Perseus, the last
+    king of Macedon (B. C. 179-168). His war with Rome; defeat at
+    Pydna; capture and death. Division of Macedonia. Reduction of
+    tribute. Treachery of the Romans toward the Achæan League. Last
+    war with Rome. Battle of Leucopetra, near Corinth, B. C. 146.
+
+
+IV. THRACE.
+
+=87.= The Thracian kingdom of Lysimachus has no history that need detain
+us. Unlike Egypt or Syria under Macedonian rule, it contributed nothing
+to literature, science, or general civilization. The several tribes were
+powerful by reason of their numbers, their hardy contempt of danger and
+exposure, and their untamable love of freedom; but their strength was too
+often wasted in fighting against each other, and thus they were reduced
+either to subjects or humble allies of the more civilized nations to the
+southward. At the same time, their position on the Danube rendered them
+the most exposed of all the ancient kingdoms, to the incursions of the
+northern barbarians; and the history of Thrace under the Romans is only a
+record of wars and devastations.
+
+
+V. KINGDOM OF PERGAMUS.
+
+=88.= Beside the four great monarchies already described, a number of
+smaller kingdoms arose from the ruins of Alexander’s empire. A few of
+these will be briefly mentioned. Pergamus, on the Ca´icus in Mysia,
+possessed a strong fortress, which was used by Lysimachus as a place
+of safe keeping for his treasures, under the charge of Philetæ´rus,
+of Tium, an officer in whom he reposed the greatest confidence. This
+person, provoked by ill-treatment from the Thracian queen, made himself
+independent, and by means of the ample treasures of Lysimachus,
+maintained his principality undisturbed for twenty years, B. C. 283-263.
+(See §§ 30, 31.)
+
+His nephew, Eumenes, who succeeded him, increased his territories by
+a victory over Antiochus I., near Sardis. After reigning twenty-two
+years (B. C., 263-241), he was succeeded by his cousin, Attalus I., who
+gained a great victory over the Gauls, and, first of his family, took
+the title of king. Ten years later, he defeated Antiochus Hierax (see
+§ 33), and included in his own dominions all the countries west of the
+Halys and north of the Taurus. In wars with the kings of Syria, he lost
+these conquests, and was limited for seven years to his own principality
+of Pergamus; but by the aid of Gallic mercenaries and his own good
+management, he won back most of the territories. He earned the favor of
+Rome by joining that Republic against Philip V. of Macedon. The country
+was ravaged by Philip in the interval of his Roman wars (see § 80); but
+the great victory off Chios compensated Attalus for his losses, and the
+treasures he amassed made his name proverbial for wealth. His exertions
+in behalf of his allies, during the second war of Rome and Macedon, ended
+his life at an advanced age, B. C. 197.
+
+=89.= Eumenes II., his eldest son and successor, aided the Roman
+operations against the kings of Syria and Macedonia, with so much
+energy and talent, that he was rewarded with an increase of territory
+on both sides of the Hellespont, and his kingdom was for a time one
+of the greatest in Asia. He continued his father’s liberal policy in
+the encouragement of art and literature, founded the great Library of
+Pergamus, which was second only to that of Alexandria, and beautified
+his capital with many magnificent buildings. At his death his crown was
+assumed by his brother, Attalus II. (Philadelphus), as the son of Eumenes
+was still a child. More than half the twenty-one years of Philadelphus’s
+reign were occupied by wars, especially against Pru´sias II., king of
+Bithynia. By aiding the revolt of Nicomedes, who gained that kingdom
+instead of his father, Attalus secured some years of peace, which he
+employed in building cities and increasing his library. Chief of the
+cities were Eumeni´a, in Phrygia; Philadelphia, in Lydia; and Attali´a,
+in Pamphylia.
+
+=90.= Philadelphus died B. C. 138, leaving the kingdom to his nephew,
+Attalus III. (Philometor), the son of Eumenes II. This king crowded into
+the short period of five years more crimes and atrocities than can be
+found in all the other reigns of his dynasty put together. He murdered
+all the old friends of his father and uncle, with their families; all
+who still held any office of trust in the kingdom; and, finally, his own
+nearest relatives, including his mother, for whom he had professed the
+warmest affection by the surname he adopted. At last he retired from
+this atrocious career of misgovernment, to the more innocent pursuits
+of painting, sculpture, and gardening. He died of a fever, leaving his
+kingdom a legacy to the Roman people. Aristoni´cus, a half-brother of
+Attalus III., successfully resisted the Roman claims for three years,
+even defeating and capturing Licin´ius Crassus, who was sent to take
+possession; but he was in turn made prisoner, and Pergamus was added to
+the territories of Rome, B. C. 130.
+
+
+VI. BITHYNIA.
+
+=91.= This tributary province of Persia regained its independence
+upon the overthrow of that empire, and resisted all the efforts of
+Alexander’s generals to reduce it. Among its kings were Nicomedes I.,
+who founded Nicomedia on the Propontis; Zeilas, who gained his crown by
+the aid of the Gauls; and Prusias, his son, who extended his kingdom
+by constant wars, and would have raised it to great importance but for
+the offense he gave the Romans, by making war against Pergamus and by
+sheltering Hannibal. He was forced to surrender to Eumenes some important
+territories.
+
+Prusias II. suffered still greater disasters, owing to his own
+contemptible wickedness. He sent his son Nicomedes to Rome, with secret
+orders for his assassination. But the plot failed; and Nicomedes II.,
+whose popularity had excited his father’s jealousy, now returned with
+the support of the Romans and the Pergamene king, and gained possession
+of the throne. He reigned fifty-eight years with the title Epiphanes
+(Illustrious). His son, Nicomedes III., in alliance with the Romans, made
+war seven years with Mithridates, king of Pontus, their most able and
+resolute opponent. He was twice expelled from his dominions; but after
+the close of the first Mithridatic War, he reigned peacefully ten years,
+and, having no children, left his kingdom to the Romans, B. C. 74.
+
+
+VII. PONTUS.
+
+=92.= Cappadocia under the Persians had been a satrapy, governed by
+the descendants of that Ota´nes who conspired with Darius I. against
+the false Smerdis. (See Book II.) In 363 B. C., a son of the satrap
+Mithridates revolted, and made himself king of that portion of Cappadocia
+which lay next the sea, and was thence called Pontus by the Greeks.
+This kingdom was for a short time subject to the Macedonian power; but
+Mithridates I., in 318 B. C., became again independent. The annals of
+the next two reigns are of no great importance. Mithridates III. (B. C.
+245-190) enlarged and strengthened his dominion by alliances with the
+Asiatic monarchs, as well as by wars. His son Phar´naces conquered Sinope
+from the Greeks, and made it his capital. The next king, Mithridates
+IV. (B. C. 160-120), aided Rome against Carthage and Pergamus, and was
+rewarded by the addition of the Greater Phrygia to his dominions.
+
+=93.= Mithridates V., the Great, came to the throne at the age of eleven
+years, his father having been murdered by some officers of the court.
+The young prince, distrusting his guardians, began in his earliest years
+to accustom himself to antidotes against poison, and to spend much of
+his time in hunting, which enabled him to take refuge in the most rough
+and inaccessible portions of his kingdom. He had, however, received a
+Greek education at Sinope; and when, at the age of twenty, he assumed the
+government, he possessed not only a soul and body inured to every sort of
+peril and hardship, but a mind furnished with all the knowledge needful
+to a king. He spoke twenty-five languages, and could transact business
+with every tribe of his dominions, in its own peculiar dialect.
+
+The Romans had already seized his province of Phrygia, and he clearly
+saw the conflict which must soon take place with the all-absorbing
+Republic. He determined, therefore, to extend his kingdom to the eastward
+and northward, thus increasing its power and wealth, so as to make it
+more nearly a match for its great western antagonist. In seven years
+he added to his dominions half the shores of the Black Sea, including
+the Cimme´rian peninsula—now the Crimea—and extending westward to the
+Dniester. He made alliances with the wild and powerful tribes upon the
+Danube, and with the kings of Armenia, Cappadocia, and Bithynia. From
+the last two countries he afterward drove out their hereditary kings,
+placing his own son on the throne of Cappadocia, and Socrates, a younger
+brother of Nicomedes III., on that of Bithynia.
+
+=94.= The Roman Senate now interfered, and with their favor Nicomedes
+invaded Pontus. Mithridates marched into Cappadocia and drove out its
+newly reinstated king; then into Bithynia, where he routed the army of
+Nicomedes and defeated the Romans. He speedily made himself master of all
+Asia Minor, except a few towns in the extreme south and west; and from
+his headquarters at Pergamus, gave orders for a general massacre of all
+Romans and Italians in Asia. Eighty thousand persons fell in consequence
+of this atrocious act, but from that moment the tide turned against
+Mithridates. Two large armies which he sent into Greece, were defeated
+by Sulla at Chæronea. A great battle in Bithynia was lost by the Pontic
+generals. Pontus itself was invaded, and its king became a fugitive.
+
+Peace was at length made, on terms most humiliating to Mithridates. He
+surrendered all his conquests, and a fleet of seventy vessels; agreed to
+pay 2,000 talents; and recognized the kings of Cappadocia and Bithynia,
+whom he had formerly expelled. The reverses of Mithridates naturally led
+the subject nations on the Euxine to throw off his yoke. He was preparing
+to march against them, when a second Roman war was kindled by a sudden
+and unprovoked aggression of Murena, the general of the Republic in the
+East. The Romans were defeated on the Halys, and peace was restored, B.
+C. 82.
+
+=95.= In the seven years’ breathing-space which followed, Mithridates
+subdued all his revolted subjects, and recruited his forces with the
+utmost energy. His army, drawn largely from the barbarous nations on
+the Danube and Euxine, was drilled and equipped according to the Roman
+system, and his navy was increased to four hundred vessels. Both the
+Pontic king and the Romans would willingly have remained some years
+longer at peace, but, in 74 B. C., the legacy of Bithynia to the latter
+power, by Nicomedes III., brought them into unavoidable collision.
+Mithridates first seized the country, and gained a double victory over
+Cotta, by sea and land. But he failed in the sieges of Chalcedon and
+Cyzicus, and in the second year he was repeatedly worsted by Lucul´lus.
+His fleet was first defeated off Tenedos, and then wrecked by a storm. In
+the third year Mithridates was driven out of his own dominions, and those
+of his son-in-law, Tigranes. For three years the war was carried on in
+Armenia, where the two kings were twice defeated by Lucullus.
+
+In 68 B. C., Mithridates returned to his kingdom, and defeated the Romans
+twice within a few months. But in 66 B. C., Pompey assumed the command,
+and Mithridates, after the loss of nearly his whole army, abandoned
+Pontus, and retired into the barbarous regions north of the Euxine, where
+the Romans did not care to pursue him. With a spirit untamed either by
+years or misfortunes, he plotted the bold design of gathering to his
+standard the wild tribes along the Danube, and marching upon Italy from
+the north. But his officers did not share his enthusiasm. A conspiracy
+against him was headed by his own son; and the old king, deserted by all
+whom he would have trusted, attempted to end his life by poison. His
+constitution had been for many years so guarded by antidotes, that the
+drugs had no effect, and he was finally dispatched by one of his Gallic
+soldiers. Pontus became a Roman province, only a small portion of its
+territory continuing, a century or more, under princes of the ancient
+dynasty.
+
+
+VIII. CAPPADOCIA.
+
+[Illustration: Coin of Ariarathes V., twice the size of original.]
+
+=96.= The southern part of Cappadocia remained loyal to the Persian
+kings until their downfall at Arbela. It was conquered by Perdiccas
+after the death of Alexander, but within six years became independent,
+and continued under native kings until it was absorbed into the Roman
+dominions, A. D. 17. The history of these monarchs is of little
+importance, except so far as it is included in that of the neighboring
+nations. The fifth king, Ariara´thes IV., made, in his later years, a
+close and friendly alliance with the Romans, which continued unbroken
+under his successors.
+
+Ariarathes V. (B. C. 131-96) presents the sole example of a “blameless
+prince” in the three centuries following Alexander. No act of deceit or
+cruelty is recorded against him. Cappadocia, under his reign, became a
+celebrated abode of philosophy, under the patronage and example of the
+king. With Ariarathes VIII., the royal Persian line became extinct, and
+the Cappadocians chose a new sovereign in Ariobarza´nes I. (B. C. 93-64).
+This king was three times driven out of his dominions by the sovereigns
+of Armenia and Pontus, and three times reinstated by the Romans. The last
+king, Archelaus (B. C. 36-A. D. 17), was summoned by Tibe´rius to Rome,
+where he died, and his kingdom became a Roman province.
+
+
+IX. ARMENIA.
+
+=97.= Armenia was included in the kingdom of the Seleucidæ, from
+the battle of Ipsus to that of Magnesia, B. C. 190. Two generals of
+Antiochus III. then revolted against him, and set up the kingdoms
+of Armenia Major on the east, and Armenia Minor on the west of the
+Euphrates. The greatest king of Armenia Major was Tigranes I. (B. C.
+96-55), who not only gained important victories from the Parthian
+monarch, but conquered all Syria, and held it fourteen years. He incurred
+the vengeance of Rome in various ways, but chiefly by sustaining his
+father-in-law, Mithridates, in his wars against the Republic. He suffered
+several calamitous defeats, with the loss of his capital, Tigran´ocer´ta.
+
+In 67 B. C., the disaffection of the Roman troops gave the two kings the
+opportunity to recover much of what they had lost. The appearance of the
+great Pompey upon the scene again turned the tide. The young Tigranes
+rebelled against his father, with the aid of Parthia and Rome. The king
+surrendered all his conquests, retaining only his hereditary kingdom
+of the Greater Armenia. His son, Artavas´des I. (B. C. 55-34), aided
+the expedition of Crassus against the Parthians; but having afterward
+offended Antony, he was taken prisoner and put to death by order of
+Cleopatra. Artaxias, his son, ordered a massacre of all the Romans in
+Armenia. In 19 B. C., he was himself murdered by his own relations. The
+remaining kings were sovereigns only in name, being set up or displaced
+alternately by the Romans and Parthians, until Armenia was absorbed by
+the former, A. D. 114. Armenia Minor was usually a dependency of some
+neighboring kingdom, from the time of Mithridates to that of Vespa´sian
+(A. D. 69-79), when it, too, became a Roman province.
+
+
+X. BACTRIA.
+
+=98.= Bactria was a part of the Syrian empire from 305 to 255 B. C.
+Diodotus, the satrap, then made himself independent, and established
+a new Greek kingdom, the most easterly of all the scattered fragments
+of Alexander’s conquests. Euthydemus, the third king, was a native of
+Magnesia, and a usurper (B. C. 222-200). His son Demetrius made many
+victorious campaigns, extending over Afghanistan and into India (B. C.
+200-180). He lost a part of his native dominions to a rebel, Eucrat´ides,
+who reigned north of the Pa´ropam´isus range during the life of
+Demetrius, and after his death, over the whole country. He, too, carried
+on Indian wars with great energy and success. Under his son, Heli´ocles
+(B. C. 160-150), the Bactrian kingdom rapidly declined, being invaded by
+the Parthian kings on the west, and the Tartar tribes from the north.
+
+
+XI. PARTHIAN EMPIRE OF THE ARSACIDÆ.
+
+=99.= The Parthians established their independence about B. C. 250, under
+the lead of the Scythian Arsaces. The people were of the same race with
+the modern Turks—treacherous in war, indolent and unaspiring in peace,
+rude in arts and barbarous in manners. Their warlike hardihood, however,
+gave the Romans a more troublesome resistance than they encountered in
+any other portion of Alexander’s former empire; and the dominion of the
+Arsacidæ lasted nearly 500 years, until it was overthrown by the new
+Persian kingdom, A. D. 226. The greatness of the Parthian empire dates
+from Mithridates, who is also called Arsaces VI., B. C. 174-136. The
+neighboring kingdom of Bactria, with its Greek monarchs and its higher
+civilization, had hitherto maintained the ascendency; but while these
+kings were absorbed in their Indian conquests, Mithridates seized upon
+several of their provinces, and eventually absorbed their whole dominion.
+
+[Illustration: Coin of Arsaces III., twice the size of original.]
+
+The Parthian empire, at its greatest extent, comprised all the countries
+between the Euphrates and the Indus; from the Araxes and the Caspian
+on the north, to the Persian Gulf and Indian Ocean on the south. Its
+numerous parts were not consolidated into one government, as were the
+satrapies of Persia or the provinces of Rome; but each nation, with its
+own laws and usages, retained its native king, who was tributary to the
+lord-paramount in the Arsacid family. Hence the Parthian coins, like the
+Assyrian monuments, commonly bear the title “King of Kings.” The wars of
+Mithridates made the Euphrates the boundary-line between the Parthian and
+Roman empires. The wealth and power of the Oriental monarchy provoked
+at once the avarice and the jealousy of the western Republic, and a
+collision could not long be delayed. The details of the Parthian wars of
+Rome will be found in Book V.
+
+
+RECAPITULATION.
+
+    Bravery and barbarism of the Thracians. Rise of Pergamus, B.
+    C. 283. Reigns of Philotærus, Eumenes, Attalus I. Success and
+    enlightened policy of Eumenes II. Wars of Attalus Philadelphus.
+    His new cities. Crimes of Attalus III. Bequest of his kingdom
+    to Rome. Short reign of Aristonicus. Bithynia ruled by
+    Nicomedes I., Zeilas, Prusias I. and II., Nicomedes II. and
+    III., B. C. 278-74. Rise of the kingdom of Pontus, B. C. 363.
+    Independent of Macedon, B. C. 318; enlarged by Mithridates
+    III. and Pharnaces, B. C. 245-160. Education of Mithridates
+    V., his conquests and alliances; first collision with the
+    Romans, B. C. 88; massacre of 80,000 Italians; disasters and
+    humiliating peace. Second Roman War, B. C. 83, 82. Seven
+    years’ drill of Pontic forces in Roman tactics. Third Roman
+    War, B. C. 74-65; Mithridates driven into Armenia, B. C. 71;
+    recovered his kingdom, B. C. 68; defeated by Pompey, B. C.
+    66; took refuge in the northern wilds, and ended his life by
+    violence, B. C. 63. Pontus became a Roman province. Cappadocia
+    in alliance with Rome, B. C. 188. Just and peaceful reign of
+    Ariarathes V. End of the dynasty in Ariarathes VIII. Exiles
+    and returns of Ariobarzanes I. The country absorbed into the
+    Roman dominion, A. D. 17. Armenia a part of the Syrian empire,
+    B. C. 301-190. “Greater” and “Lesser” kingdoms then formed
+    on the east and west of the Euphrates. Conquest of Syria
+    by Tigranes I., B. C. 83. His wars with Rome, B. C. 69-66.
+    Losses. Fate of Artavasdes. Massacre of the Romans by Artaxias.
+    Alternate dependence upon Rome and Parthia, B. C. 19-A. D.
+    114. Bactria dependent upon Syria, B. C. 305-255. Diodotus
+    reigned, B. C. 255-237. The third king a Lydian, B. C. 222-200.
+    Indian campaigns of Demetrius and Eucratidas, B. C. 200-160.
+    Decline and fall of the kingdom under attacks of surrounding
+    barbarians, B. C. 160-80. Parthian empire powerful, but
+    uncivilized. Absorption of Bactrian provinces, B. C. 174-136. A
+    group of kingdoms, rather than a nation, side by side with Rome.
+
+
+XII. JUDÆA.
+
+=100.= Judæa, with the rest of Syria, had been assigned to Laom´edon
+upon the partition of Alexander’s conquests; but it was soon annexed by
+Ptolemy Soter, and continued 117 years a part of the Egyptian empire. Its
+history in this Book will be considered in three periods:
+
+    I. From the Fall of the Persian Empire to the Rise of an
+    Independent Jewish Kingdom, B. C. 323-168.
+
+    II. The Time of the Maccabees, B. C. 168-37.
+
+    III. The Time of the Herods, B. C. 37-A. D. 44.
+
+FIRST PERIOD. Under the first three Ptolemies, the Jews were peaceful and
+prosperous. The high priest was at the head of the state, and in local
+matters ruled with little interference from Egypt. Ptolemy Philopator,
+however, a wicked and foolish prince, attempted to profane the temple,
+and the Jews, in alarm, sought protection from Antiochus the Great. That
+monarch, with their aid, gained possession of all the coast between
+Upper Syria and the Desert of Sinai; and though often disputed, and once
+recovered by the Egyptians, this district remained a part of the Syrian
+kingdom.
+
+=101.= For thirty years the privileges of the Jews were respected by
+their new sovereigns; but toward the close of his reign, Seleucus IV.
+resolved to appropriate the sacred treasures of the temple to his own
+pressing needs, and sent Heliodorus, his treasurer, for this purpose to
+Jerusalem. According to the Jewish tradition,[61] three angels appeared
+for the defense of the holy place. One of them was seated on a terrible
+horse, which trampled Heliodorus under its feet, while the others
+scourged him until he fell lifeless to the ground. He was only restored
+by the prayers of the high priest, and the treasury remained unmolested.
+
+Antiochus Epiphanes, the brother and successor of Seleucus, was guilty
+of still more impious outrages. He put up the high priesthood at
+auction, and twice awarded it to the highest bidder, on condition of
+his introducing Greek rites and customs into Jerusalem. One of these
+mercenary pontiffs stole the sacred vessels of the temple and sold
+them at Tyre. An insurrection arose at Jerusalem, but it was punished
+by Antiochus in person, who seized the city, set up an altar to Zeus
+Olympius, with daily sacrifices of swine’s flesh in the sacred inclosure
+of the temple, and put to death a great number of the people. Two years
+later, B. C. 168, he ordered a general massacre of the Jews, and by a
+frightful persecution sought to exterminate the last remnant of the
+ancient religion. The Asmonæ´an family now arose, and by their brave
+fidelity made themselves at last sovereigns of Judæa.
+
+=102.= SECOND PERIOD. Mattathias, a priest, living between Jerusalem
+and Joppa, killed with his own hand the king’s officer who was sent to
+enforce the heathen sacrifices, together with the first renegade Jew
+who consented to offer. He then took refuge in the mountains with his
+five sons, and was reinforced daily by fugitives from various parts of
+Judæa. As their numbers increased, this band issued frequently from their
+fastnesses, cut off detachments of the Syrian army, destroyed heathen
+altars, and in many places restored the Jewish worship in the synagogues.
+The aged Mattathias died in the first year of the war, and was succeeded
+in command of the forces by his third son, Judas, who obtained the name
+of _Maccabæus_ from his many victories.
+
+During the disputes for the Syrian regency, which followed the death of
+Antiochus Epiphanes (see §§ 40, 41), Judas Maccabæus gained possession of
+all Jerusalem, except the citadel on Mount Zion, and held it three years.
+He purified the temple, restored the incense, lights, and sacrifices,
+and drove out Syrians and Hellenizing Jews from every part of Judæa.
+The Syrian general, Nicanor, was twice defeated with great loss. In the
+second battle, near Beth-horon, Nicanor fell, and his whole army was
+cut to pieces. The Romans made alliance with the Maccabees; but before
+their aid could arrive, Judas had fallen in battle, B. C. 160. Jerusalem
+was lost, and for fourteen years Jonathan Maccabæus could only carry
+on a guerrilla warfare from his fastness in the Desert of Teko´ah. The
+disputes for the Syrian throne, between Demetrius and Alexander Balas,
+which were continued under their sons (see §§ 42-46), gave a respite
+to the Jews, and even made their alliance an object of desire to both
+parties. Jonathan was thenceforth recognized as prince and high priest,
+with full possession of the Holy City.
+
+=103.= His brother Simon succeeded him in both dignities, and under his
+prosperous administration Judæa recovered, in great measure, from the
+long-continued ravages of war. The life of Simon was ended by treachery.
+His son-in-law, Ptolemy, the governor of Jericho, desiring to seize the
+government for himself, murdered the high priest and two of his sons
+at a banquet. But the other son, John Hyrcanus, escaped and succeeded
+his father. At the beginning of his reign, Jerusalem endured a long and
+painful siege by Antiochus Sidetes, B. C. 135-133. Its walls, which had
+been restored, were leveled with the ground; and a tribute was again
+demanded, which lasted, however, no longer than the life of Sidetes.
+Hyrcanus captured Samaria, and destroyed the temple on Mount Gerizim (see
+Book II, § 64). He conquered Id´ume´a, rendering Judæa fully equal in
+power to Syria, which was now reduced from a great empire to a petty and
+exhausted kingdom.
+
+=104.= Aristobu´lus, son of Hyrcanus, was the first of the family who
+assumed the title of king. He reigned but a year, and was succeeded
+by his brother, Alexander Jannæ´us (B. C. 105-78). This prince was a
+Sadducee, and the opposite sect of the Pharisees stirred up a mob to
+attack him, while officiating as high priest in the Feast of Tabernacles.
+The riot was put down with a slaughter of 6,000 insurgents. Alexander
+gained victories over the Moabites and the Arabs of Gilead; but in a
+subsequent war with the latter he suffered a great defeat, and the
+malcontents at home seized the occasion for a new outbreak. The civil war
+now raged six years. For a time Alexander was driven to the mountains,
+but at length he regained the ascendency, and revenged himself upon the
+rebels with frightful cruelty. He left the crown to his widow, Alexandra,
+who joined the Pharisees, and was maintained in power by their influence.
+
+=105.= After her death, her two sons, Hyrcanus and Aristobulus, quarreled
+seven years for the sovereignty. Pompey the Great, who was then at
+Damascus, interfered and captured Jerusalem, carried off Aristobulus to
+Rome, and established the elder brother in the government. He reigned six
+years in peace, B. C. 63-57. In the latter year Aristobulus escaped, and
+being joined by many of his partisans, renewed the war. He was besieged
+and taken in Machæ´rus by the Roman proconsul, who also deposed Hyrcanus,
+and set up a sort of oligarchy in Jerusalem. Pompey, in taking the city,
+had left its sacred treasures untouched, but during this period, Crassus,
+on his way to Parthia, seized and plundered the temple. After ten years
+(B. C. 57-47), Hyrcanus was restored to the high priesthood, while
+his friend Antipater, the Idumæan, was appointed procurator, or civil
+governor, of Judæa.
+
+In B. C. 40, Antigonus, son of Aristobulus, with the aid of a Parthian
+force, captured Jerusalem and reigned three years, the last of the
+Asmonæan princes. Antipater had been poisoned; his son Herod repaired to
+Rome, and received from the Senate the title of King of Judæa. Returning
+speedily, he conquered Galilee and advanced to the siege of Jerusalem.
+This was protracted several years, for the Jews were firmly attached to
+Antigonus, and resented equally the interference of Rome and the reign of
+an Edomite. After hard fighting the walls were taken, and the king was
+executed like a common criminal.
+
+=106.= THIRD PERIOD, B. C. 37-A. D. 44. Herod was justly surnamed “the
+Great,” for his talents and the grandeur of his enterprises, though
+his character was stained by the worst faults of a tyrant, cruelty and
+reckless caprice. At the age of fifteen he had been made governor of
+Galilee by Julius Cæsar, and had ruled with great energy and success,
+suppressing the banditti who infested the country, and putting their
+leaders to death. He began his reign in Judæa by a massacre of all who
+had been opposed to him, especially those whose wealth would best enable
+him to reward his Roman benefactors. The Temple, which, being used as a
+fortress, had been nearly destroyed in the repeated sieges, was rebuilt,
+by his orders, with a magnificence which rivaled the glories of Solomon.
+His liberality was equally shown during a famine which visited Judæa and
+the surrounding countries. He bought immense quantities of corn in Egypt,
+and fed the entire people at his own expense, beside supplying several
+provinces with seed for the next harvest.
+
+Herod affected Roman tastes: he built a circus and amphitheater in
+a suburb of Jerusalem, where games and combats of wild beasts were
+celebrated in honor of the emperor Augustus. To show his impartiality,
+he restored the Samaritan temple on Mount Gerizim, while he adorned his
+new and magnificent city of Cæsare´a with imposing shrines of the Roman
+gods. This universal tolerance was most unpleasing to the Jews, and their
+disposition to revolt was only kept down by the vigilance of innumerable
+spies, and the construction of a chain of fortresses around Jerusalem.
+
+=107.= The last two members of the Asmonæan family were Mariam´ne and
+Aristobulus, grandchildren of Hyrcanus II. Herod married the former,
+and bestowed upon the latter the office of high priest; but the great
+popularity of the young prince alarmed his jealousy, and he caused him
+to be secretly assassinated. Though devotedly attached to Mariamne,
+Herod twice ordered her put to death in case of his own decease,
+during perilous expeditions for which he was leaving the capital.
+These atrocious orders coming to the knowledge of the queen, naturally
+increased the aversion for Herod which had been inspired by the murder of
+her grandfather and her brother.
+
+Her high spirit scorned concealment; she was brought to trial, and her
+bitter enemies persuaded Herod to consent to her execution. But the
+violence of his grief and remorse kept him a long time on the verge of
+insanity, and a raging fever nearly ended his life. His temper, which had
+been generous though hasty, now became so ferocious that his best friends
+were often ordered to death on the slightest suspicion. Three of his sons
+were executed on charges of conspiracy. From his death-bed he ordered a
+massacre of the infants in Bethlehem, because wise men from the East had
+informed him that in that little village the Messiah was born. About the
+same time, he had set up a golden eagle over the gate of the Temple. A
+sedition immediately arose, and its leaders were punished with atrocious
+cruelty, by the command of the dying king. Herod died in the same year
+with the birth of our Lord, which the common chronology places, by an
+error, B. C. 4.
+
+[Illustration: TEMPLE AT JERUSALEM, AS REBUILT BY HEROD.
+
+_Herod’s Porch._ _Solomon’s Porch._ _Castle of Antonia._]
+
+=108.= His dominions, except Abilene in Syria, were divided among
+his three sons, Archelaus, Antipas, and Philip, the eldest receiving
+Judæa and Samaria. He reigned so oppressively that he was removed by
+the Romans, A. D. 8; and until A. D. 36, the province was managed by
+procurators, or governors, subject to the præfects of Syria. Under the
+fifth of these, Pontius Pilate, Christ was crucified by Roman authority,
+through the accusations of the chief officers of the Jews. Herod Antipas
+was meanwhile ruling in Galilee (B. C. 4-A. D. 39; see Luke xxiii: 6-12),
+and Philip in Trachoni´tis (B. C. 4-A. D. 37; see Mark vi: 17, 18).
+When these provinces became vacant, they were bestowed by the Emperor
+Calig´ula upon his favorite, Herod Agrip´pa I., grandson of Herod the
+Great and Mariamne. A. D. 41, Samaria and Judæa were also added to his
+dominions, which for three years covered the entire territory of Herod
+the Great.
+
+=109.= Agrippa began to persecute the Christians in the year 44, and the
+Romans again placed Judæa under the government of procurators. Gessius
+Florus, the sixth of the new series, was a cruel and crafty tyrant, who
+plundered his province without pity or shame. He shared the spoils of
+highway robbers, whom he permitted and even encouraged. Twice he stirred
+up riots in Jerusalem, sacrificing the lives of thousands of people, only
+that he might avail himself of the confusion to pillage the Temple.
+
+His atrocities at length drove the Jews to open revolt. A Roman army
+of 100,000 men, commanded by Titus, the son of the emperor Vespasian,
+besieged the Holy City five months. The three walls, the fortress of
+Mount Zion, and the Temple had each to be taken by separate assault; and
+never was a siege more memorable for the obstinacy of the resistance. The
+Temple was surrendered Sept. 8, 70. All the people who had not perished
+by the hardships of the siege, were made slaves and divided among the
+victors as prizes. Large colonies were transported into the heart of
+Germany or to Italy, where the golden vessels of the Temple adorned the
+triumphal procession of Titus at Rome. No ancient city of any fame was
+ever so completely ruined as Jerusalem. Mount Zion was plowed as a field
+and sown with salt, and the buildings of the Temple were leveled to the
+ground.
+
+
+RECAPITULATION.
+
+    Judæa subject to Egypt, B. C. 320-203; to Syria, B. C. 203-168.
+    Persecution by Antiochus Epiphanes, and revolt of Mattathias,
+    B. C. 168. Victories of Judas Maccabæus, B. C. 166-160.
+    Jonathan prince and high priest, B. C. 160-143. Prosperous
+    reign of Simon, B. C. 143-133. Siege and capture of Jerusalem
+    by Antiochus Sidetes, B. C. 135-133. Conquests of John
+    Hyrcanus, B. C. 135-106. Aristobulus I. takes the royal title.
+    Civil wars of Pharisees and Sadducees, under Alexander Jannæus,
+    B. C. 105-78. Reign of Alexandra, B. C. 78-69. Hyrcanus II.,
+    B. C. 69, 68. Aristobulus II., B. C. 68-63. Jerusalem taken
+    by Pompey, who awards the sovereignty to Hyrcanus. After
+    six years, Hyrcanus deposed and an oligarchy set up, B. C.
+    57-47. Jerusalem plundered by Crassus, B. C. 54. Antipater,
+    the Idumæan, governor, B. C. 47-40, while Hyrcanus is again
+    high priest. Antigonus prince and priest, B. C. 40-37. Herod,
+    son of Antipater, invested at Rome with the royalty of Judæa,
+    conquers Galilee, and by a long siege takes Jerusalem, B. C.
+    37. His greatness and tyranny. His public works. Execution of
+    Queen Mariamne, B. C. 29. “Murder of the Innocents,” and death
+    of Herod, B. C. 4. Division of his kingdom into tetrarchies.
+    Archelaus succeeded in his government by Roman governors, A. D.
+    8-36. The Crucifixion, A. D. 29 or 30. Four provinces united
+    under Herod Agrippa, A. D. 41. Procurators restored, A. D. 44.
+    Gessius Florus, A. D. 65, 66. Siege and capture of Jerusalem by
+    Titus, A. D. 70.
+
+
+QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW.
+
+BOOK IV.
+
+   1. Describe the rise of Macedonia.                             §§ 1, 2.
+   2.          The successive steps of the ascendency of Philip.      2-5.
+   3.          The youth, education, and character of Alexander.     6, 7.
+   4.          His conquests and Asiatic policy.              8-12, 14-17.
+   5.          His projects and death.                                 18.
+   6.          The war of the regents.                                 19.
+   7. What was done by Antipater?                          19, 20, 66, 67.
+   8.               By Antigonus and his son?           20, 22-25, 29, 68.
+   9. What became of the near relatives of Alexander?               21-23.
+  10. What were the results of the battle of Ipsus?                    25.
+  11. Effects upon Europe and Asia of Alexander’s conquests?       26, 27.
+  12. Describe the extent and organization of the kingdom of
+        Seleucus.                                                   28-30.
+  13. Name the Seleucidæ, and relate one incident of each.          28-48.
+  14. Describe in detail the reign of Antiochus the Great.     34-37, 100.
+  15.          The last but one of the kings of Syria.             48, 97.
+  16.          The incursions of the Gauls.                    31, 70, 71.
+  17.          The condition of Egypt under the Ptolemies.     49, 51, 54.
+  18.          Alexandria and its schools.                         52, 53.
+  19.          The conquests of the first three Ptolemies.     50, 54, 56.
+  20.          The character of their successors.       56, 57, 60, 62-65.
+  21. What was the result to Athens of the Lamian War?                 68.
+  22. What became of the sons of Cassander?                            67.
+  23. How many kings of Thrace and Macedonia B. C. 281?            69, 70.
+  24. Describe the two reigns of Antigonus Gonatas.                72, 74.
+  25.          The character of Pyrrhus.                           72, 73.
+  26. Tell the history of the Achæan League.                75-79, 82, 86.
+  27. What occurred in Sparta during the Macedonian regency
+        of Antigonus Doson?                                            77.
+  28. Describe the character and reign of Philip V.             78-81, 83.
+  29.          The successive interventions of the Romans in
+                   affairs of Macedonia and Greece. 76, 79, 81-83, 85, 86.
+  30.          The last of the Antigonidæ.                             84.
+  31. How many kings of other families or nations reigned in
+        Macedonia during the Third Period?
+  32. Describe the Thracians.                                          87.
+  33.          The origin and history of Pergamus.                  88-90.
+  34.          Of Bithynia.                                            91.
+  35.          The early history of Pontus.                            92.
+  36. Tell the story of Mithridates V.                              93-95.
+  37. Describe Cappadocia.                                             96.
+  38. Tell in brief the history of Armenia, B. C. 301-A. D. 114.       97.
+  39. Describe the most easterly of the Greek kingdoms in Asia.        98.
+  40.          The character and history of the Parthians.             99.
+  41. How was Judæa governed, B. C. 323-168?                     100, 101.
+  42. Describe its condition under the Syrian kings.                  101.
+  43.          The rise and reign of the Maccabees.               102-105.
+  44.          The character of Herod, and the great events of
+                   his reign.                                    106, 107.
+  45. How were his dominions distributed B. C. 4-A. D. 44?            108.
+  46. Describe the last twenty-six years of Jewish history.           109.
+  47. How many battles have been described at Beth-horon?
+  48. How many at Thermopylæ?
+  49. How many at Mantinea?
+  50. How many at Salamis in Cyprus?
+  51. How many at Chæronea?
+
+
+
+
+BOOK V.
+
+HISTORY OF ROME, FROM THE EARLIEST TIMES TO THE FALL OF THE WESTERN
+EMPIRE, A. D. 476.
+
+
+GEOGRAPHICAL SKETCH OF ITALY.
+
+=1.= ITALY, bounded by the Alps, and the Adriatic, Ionian, and
+Tyrrhe´nian seas, is the smallest of the three peninsulas of southern
+Europe. It is inferior to Greece in the number of its harbors and
+littoral islands, but excels it in the richness and extent of its plains
+and fertile mountain-sides, being thus better fitted for agriculture and
+the rearing of cattle than for maritime interests. Still, from its long
+and narrow shape, Italy has an extended coast-line; the slopes of the
+Apennines abounded, in ancient times, with forests of oak suitable for
+ship-timber; and the people, especially of Etru´ria, were early attracted
+to the sea.
+
+=2.= The Alps, which separate Italy from the rest of Europe, have had an
+important effect upon her history. At present they are traversed securely
+by less than a dozen roads, which are among the wonders of modern
+engineering. In early times they formed a usually effectual barrier
+against the barbarous nations on the north and west. The Apennines leave
+the Alpine range near the present boundary between Italy and France, and
+extend in a south-easterly and southerly direction to the end of the
+peninsula, throwing off lateral ridges on both sides to the sea, and
+forming that great variety of surface and climate which is the peculiar
+charm of the country. A multitude of rivers contribute vastly to the
+fertility of the soil, though, from their short and rapid course, they
+are of little value for navigation. Varro preferred the climate of Italy
+to that of Greece, as producing in perfection every thing good for the
+use of man. No barley could be compared with the Campa´nian, no wheat
+with the Apu´lian, no rye with the Faler´nian, no oil with the Vena´fran.
+
+=3.= NORTHERN ITALY lies between the Swiss Alps and the Upper Apennines,
+and is almost covered by the great plain of the Po, which is one of the
+most fertile regions of Europe. It comprised, in the most ancient times,
+the three countries of Ligu´ria, Upper Etruria, and Vene´tia. The second
+of these divisions, together with some portions of the Ligurian and
+Venetian territories, was conquered, in the sixth century before Christ,
+by a Celtic population from the north and west, and was thenceforth known
+as Cisalpine Gaul. The region north of the Apennines does not belong to
+Roman or even Italian history until about the time of the Christian Era,
+when it became incorporated in the territories of Rome.
+
+=4.= The peninsula proper is divided into the two regions of central and
+southern Italy, by a line drawn from the mouth of the Tifer´nus, on the
+Adriatic, to that of the Sil´arus, on the western coast. CENTRAL ITALY
+comprised six countries, of which three, Etruria, La´tium, and Campania,
+were on the Tyrrhenian Sea, and three others, Um´bria, Pice´num, and the
+Sabine country, on the Adriatic. _Etruria_ was, in the earliest times,
+the most important division of Italy proper. It was separated from
+Liguria by the river Macra; from Cisalpine Gaul, by the Apennines; and
+from Umbria, the Sabine territory, and Latium, by the Tiber.
+
+_Latium_, lying south of Etruria, was chiefly a low plain; but its
+surface was varied by spurs of the Apennines on the north, and by the
+Vol´scian and Alban ranges of volcanic origin in the center and south. It
+included the Roman Campagna, now a solitary and almost treeless expanse,
+considered uninhabitable from the noxious exhalations of the soil, but
+during and before the flourishing period of Rome, the site of many
+populous cities. Several foreign tribes occupied portions of the Latin
+territory, among whom the Volsci, on the mountains which bear their name,
+and the Æqui, north of Prænes´te, were best worthy of mention. In the
+view of history, a cluster of low hills—seven east and three west of the
+Tiber—which constitute in later ages the site of Rome, is not only the
+most important part of Latium, but that which gives its significance to
+all the rest.
+
+=5.= _Campania_ was a fertile and delightful region, extending from the
+Liris to the Silarus, and from the Apennines to the sea. Greek and Roman
+writers never wearied of celebrating the excellence of its harbors, the
+beauty of its landscape, the exuberant richness of its soil, and the
+enchanting softness of its air. The coast is varied by the isolated cone
+of Vesu´vius and a range of volcanic hills, including the now extinct
+crater of Solfata´ra. _Umbria_ was a mountainous country east of Etruria.
+Before the coming of the Gauls, it extended northward to the Ru´bicon
+and eastward to the Adriatic; but its coast was wholly conquered by that
+people, who drove the Umbrians beyond the mountains.
+
+_Picenum_ consisted of a flat, fertile plain along the Adriatic, and
+a hilly region, consisting of twisted spurs of the Apennines, in the
+interior. Poets praised the apples of Picenum, and its olives were among
+the choicest in Italy. The _Sabine_ territory, at its greatest extension,
+was 200 miles in length, and reached nearly from sea to sea. It was
+inhabited by many tribes, probably of common origin. Beside the Sabines
+proper, were the Sam´nites, the Frenta´ni, and the Marsi, Mar´ruci´ni,
+Pelig´ni, and Vesti´ni, who formed the League of the Four Cantons. The
+Sabine country, though rough, was fertile, and its wine and oil chiefly
+supplied the common people of Rome.
+
+=6.= SOUTHERN ITALY included four countries: Luca´nia and Brut´tium on
+the west, Apulia and Cala´bria on the east. _Lucania_ is a picturesque
+and fertile country, watered by many rivers. _Bruttium_ is of similar
+character, and was especially valued in old times for its pine forests,
+which, from their timber and pitch, yielded an important revenue to the
+Roman government. Both countries attracted multitudes of Greek colonists,
+whose cities early rose to a high degree of wealth and civilization. (See
+Book III, §§ 87, 90.) _Apulia_, unlike any other division of central or
+southern Italy, consists chiefly of a rich, unbroken plain, from twenty
+to forty miles in width, gently sloping from the mountains to the sea.
+In ancient times it maintained great numbers of horses and sheep, the
+latter of which were famed for the fineness of their wool. When the plain
+became parched by summer heats, the flocks were driven to the neighboring
+mountains of Samnium; while, in winter, the Samnite flocks forsook their
+bleak and snowy heights to find pasturage in the rich meadows of Apulia.
+The northern portion of Apulia is mountainous, being traversed by two
+strong spurs of the Apennines, one of which projects into the sea and
+forms the rocky headland of Mount Garga´nus.
+
+_Calabria_,[62] called by the Greeks Iapyg´ia or Messa´pia, occupied
+the long peninsula which is commonly called the heel of Italy. Its soft
+limestone soil quickly absorbs moisture, rendering the country arid, and
+the heats of summer intense. The products of the soil were, however, in
+ancient times, abundant and of great value. Its oil, wine, and honey were
+widely celebrated, the wool afforded by its flocks was of the finest
+quality, and the horses which recruited the Tarentine cavalry were among
+the most excellent in the world.
+
+=7.= Italy possessed three islands of great importance: Sicily, noted for
+its excellent harbors and inexhaustible soil; Sardin´ia, for its silver
+mines and harvests of grain; and Cor´sica, for its dense forests of
+pine and fir. The position as well as the valuable productions of these
+islands, early tempted the enterprise of both Greeks and Carthaginians;
+and rivalry in their possession first drew these nations into hostility
+with each other, and with the ultimately victorious power of Rome.
+
+
+HISTORY OF ROME.
+
+=8.= Our history in this Book falls naturally into three divisions:
+
+      I. THE ROMAN KINGDOM,    B. C. 753-510.
+     II. THE ROMAN REPUBLIC,     ”   510-30.
+    III. THE ROMAN EMPIRE,       ”    30-A. D. 476.
+
+The records of the First Period, so far as they relate to persons, are
+largely mixed with fable, and it is impossible to separate the fanciful
+from the real. The student is recommended to read the stories of the
+kings, in their earliest and most attractive form, in Dr. Arnold’s
+History of Rome. Under their beautiful mythical guise, these legends
+present, doubtless, a considerable amount of truth. Our limits only admit
+a statement of the popular ancient belief concerning the rise of Rome,
+among the other and older nations which inhabited Italy.
+
+=9.= Central and southern Italy were occupied, from the earliest
+known times, by three races, the Etrus´cans, Italians, and Iapygians.
+The latter were nearly related to the Greeks, as has been proved by
+their language and the identity of their objects of worship. They
+therefore mingled readily with the Hellenic settlers (see § 6), and
+Greek civilization quickly took root and flourished throughout southern
+Italy. The Italians proper—so called because, when united, they became
+the ruling race in Italy—arrived later in the peninsula than the
+Iapygians. They came from the north, and crowded into closer quarters the
+half-Hellenic inhabitants of the south. They consisted of four principal
+races: the Umbrians, Sabines, Oscans, and Latins. Of these the first
+three were closely connected, while the Latins were distinct. The latter
+formed a confederacy of thirty cities, or cantons, and met every year
+on the Alban Mount to offer a united sacrifice to Jupiter Latia´ris,
+the protecting deity of the Latin race. During this festival wars were
+suspended, as in Elis during the Olympic Games.
+
+=10.= The Etruscans, or Tuscans, were wholly different in language,
+appearance, and character from the other nations of Italy. Their origin
+is wrapped in mystery. Some suppose them to have been Turanian, and thus
+allied to the Lapps, Finns, and Estho´nians of northern Europe, and the
+Basques of Spain; others, and the greater number, believe the mass of the
+people to have been Pelasgi—that race which overspread Greece and Italy
+at a remoter period than history can reach—but to have been absorbed and
+enslaved by a more powerful people from the north, who called themselves
+_Ras´ena_, while they were named by others Etruscans. History first
+finds these invaders in Rhæ´tia, the country about the head-waters of
+the Ad´ige, the Danube, and the Rhine; then traces them to the plain of
+the Po, where, at a very early period, they formed a league of twelve
+cities; and thence south of the Apennines into Tus´cany, which, reduced
+in limits, still bears their name.
+
+Here they formed a similar but quite distinct confederacy of the
+same number of cities. For a time their dominion extended across
+the peninsula, and their fleets commanded both the “Upper” and the
+“Lower Sea,” the latter of which derived from them its ancient name,
+Tyrrhenian. They conquered Campania, and built there a third cluster
+of twelve cities, of which Cap´ua was the chief; but they lost this
+portion of their territory in wars with the Samnites. Many relics of
+Etruscan art exist, in the massive walls of their cities, their castings
+in bronze, figures in terra-cotta, and golden chains, bracelets, and
+other ornaments, which prove them to have been a luxurious and wealthy
+people. Their religion was of a gloomy and superstitious character. They
+sought to know the will of their gods by auguries drawn from thunder
+and lightning, from the flight of birds, or from the entrails of slain
+beasts; and to avert their wrath by sacrifices prescribed and regulated
+by an elaborate ritual. To learn these rites formed a large part of the
+education of a young Tuscan noble.
+
+=11.= The Romans, who were destined to be for nearly twelve centuries the
+dominant race of Italy and the world, belonged to the Latin branch of
+the Italian family. A Greek tradition celebrated by Virgil, and believed
+by most Romans in the days of the empire, traced their origin to a
+company of Trojan emigrants, led to the shores of Italy by Æne´as, son
+of Anchises, after the fall of Troy. (See Book III, § 14.) But the Latin
+coast was at that time densely populated, and the new comers, if any
+such there were, must soon have been absorbed and lost among the older
+inhabitants.
+
+=12.= The common legends assigned the building of Rome to Rom´ulus,
+grandson of Nu´mitor, an Alban prince. Numitor had been deprived of his
+crown by his brother Amu´lius, who also killed the son of the deposed
+king, and compelled his daughter Silvia to become a vestal. Beloved of
+Mars, she became, however, the mother of Romulus and Remus, whereupon
+her uncle caused her to be thrown, with her twin sons, into the Anio, a
+tributary of the Tiber. The rivers had overflowed their banks; when they
+subsided, the cradle containing the infant princes was overturned at the
+foot of the Palatine Mount. Nourished by a wolf, and fed by a woodpecker
+sacred to Mars, they grew to be hardy young shepherds, and distinguished
+themselves in combats with wild beasts and robbers.
+
+At the age of twenty they became aware of their royal birth, and having
+conquered Amulius, restored their grandfather to his throne. But they
+still loved the home of their youth, and resolved to build a new city on
+the banks of the Tiber. The brothers, differing in their choice of a
+site, consulted the auspices. After watching all night, Remus, at dawn,
+saw six vultures; but Romulus, at sunrise, saw twelve. The majority
+of the shepherds voted the decision to Romulus, and it was ever after
+believed that the twelve vultures denoted twelve centuries, during which
+the dominion of the city should endure.
+
+=13.= His shepherd comrades being too few to satisfy his ambition,
+Romulus offered asylum on the Cap´itoline to homicides and runaway
+slaves, thus enrolling among his subjects the refuse of the neighboring
+tribes. To obtain wives for these adventurers, he invited the Latins and
+Sabines to witness games in honor of Neptune; and when not only men,
+but women and children were assembled, the runners and wrestlers rushed
+into the crowd and carried away whom they would. War followed, in which
+the Latins were thrice defeated. The Sabine king, Titus Tatius, marched
+with a powerful army upon Rome, obtained possession of the Capitoline
+fortress through the treachery of the maiden Tarpe´ia, the daughter of
+its commander, and nearly defeated the forces of Romulus in a long and
+obstinate battle.
+
+The Sabine women, however, now reconciled to their fate, came between
+their fathers and husbands, beseeching them with tears to be reconciled,
+since, whoever should be conquered, the grief and loss must be their own.
+A lasting peace was made, and the two kings agreed to reign jointly over
+the united nations, Romulus holding his court on the Palatine, and Titus
+Tatius on the Capitoline and Quirinal hills. After the death of Tatius,
+Romulus ruled alone. At the end of a prosperous reign of thirty-seven
+years, he was reviewing his troops one day in the Field of Mars, when
+the sun became suddenly darkened, a tempest agitated earth and air,
+and Romulus disappeared. The people mourned him as dead, but they were
+comforted by his appearing in a glorified form to one of their number,
+assuring him that the Romans should become lords of the world, and that
+he himself, under the name of Quiri´nus, would be their guardian.
+
+=14.= After a year’s interregnum, Numa, a Sabine of wise and peaceful
+character, was chosen king. He was revered in after ages as the religious
+founder of Rome, no less than Romulus as the author of its civil and
+military institutions. The wisdom and piety of his laws were attributed
+to the nymph Ege´ria, who met him by a fountain in a grove, and dictated
+to him the principles of good government. The few records of this king
+and his predecessor belong rather to mythology than to history.
+
+=15.= Tullus Hostil´ius, the third king of Rome, is the first of whose
+deeds we have any trustworthy account. He conquered Alba Longa, and
+transferred its citizens to the Cæ´lian Hill in Rome. This new city then
+became the protectress of the Latin League, with the right of presiding
+at the annual festival, though it was never, like Alba, a member of the
+League, but a distinct power in alliance with it. The federal army was
+commanded alternately by a Roman and a Latin general; and the lands
+acquired in the wars of the League were equally divided between the two
+contracting parties, thus giving to Rome, it is evident, a far greater
+share than to any other city.
+
+=16.= The citizens of consolidated Rome now constituted three tribes:
+the _Ram´nes_, or original Romans, on the Palatine; the _Tit´ies_, or
+Sabines, on the Capitoline and Quirinal; and the _Lu´ceres_, on the
+Cælian. Each tribe consisted of ten _cu´riæ_, or wards, and each _curia_
+of ten _houses_, or clans (_gentes_). The patrician, or noble, houses,
+which alone enjoyed the rights of citizenship, thus numbered three
+hundred. The heads of all the houses constituted the Senate, while the
+_Comit´ia Curia´ta_, or public assembly, included all citizens of full
+age.
+
+Rome, at this period, contained only two classes beside the Patricians.
+These were the _clients_ and _slaves_. The former were the poorer people
+who belonged to no _gens_, and therefore, though free, had no civil
+rights. They were permitted to choose a patron in the person of some
+noble, who was bound to protect their interests, if need were, in courts
+of law. The client, on the other hand, followed his patron to war as a
+vassal; contributed to his ransom, or that of his children, if taken
+prisoners; and paid part of the costs of any lawsuit in which the patron
+might be engaged, or of his expenses in discharging honorable offices in
+the state. The relation on either side descended from father to son. It
+was esteemed a glory to a noble family to have a numerous clientage, and
+to increase that which it had inherited from its ancestors. The clients
+bore the clan-name[63] of their patron. Slaves were not numerous in the
+days of the kings. During the Republic, multitudes of captives were
+brought into the market by foreign wars; and at the close of that period,
+at least half the inhabitants of Roman territory were bondsmen.
+
+=17.= Ancus Mar´tius conquered many Latin towns, and transported
+their citizens to Rome, where he assigned them the Aventine Hill as a
+residence. Of these new settlers some became clients of the nobility,
+but the wealthier class scorned this dependent condition, and relied
+upon the protection of the king. Hence arose a new order in the state,
+the _Plebs_, or commonalty, which was destined to become, in later
+times, equally important with the nobility. It included, beside the
+conquered people, foreign settlers who came for trade, for refuge, or
+for employment in the army; clients whose protecting families had become
+extinct; and sons of patricians who had married wives of inferior rank.
+Ancus extended the Roman territory to the sea; built the port-town
+of Os´tia, and established salt-works in its vicinity; fortified the
+Janiculan Hill, opposite Rome, for a defense against the Etruscans; and
+constructed the Mamertine, the first Roman prison.
+
+[Illustration: CITY OF ROME.]
+
+=18.= Lucius Tarquin´ius Priscus was of Greek origin, though he took
+his name from the Etruscan town Tarquinii, where he was born. The
+characteristics of his race were shown in the magnificent works with
+which he embellished Rome. He drained the lower parts of the city by a
+great system of sewers, and restrained the overflow of the Tiber by a
+wall of massive masonry, at the place where the Cloa´ca Maxima entered
+the river. In the valley thus redeemed from inundation he built the
+Forum, with its surrounding rows of porticos and shops; and constructed
+the Circus Maximus for the celebration of the Great Games, which had been
+founded by Romulus, and resembled in most of their features the athletic
+contests of the Greeks.
+
+As a native of Etruria, Tarquin vowed the erection, upon the Capitoline,
+of a temple to Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva, the three deities who were
+worshiped together in every Etruscan city, and for this purpose he
+cleared away from that mountain all the holy places of the Sabine gods.
+The temple was built by his son. The wars of Tarquin against the Sabines,
+Latins, and Etruscans were usually victorious, and added largely to the
+population of Rome. From the noblest of the conquered peoples he formed
+three new half-tribes of fifty “houses” each, which he joined to the
+three old tribes of Ramnes, Tities, and Luceres, while he increased
+the number of Vestal Virgins from four to six, that each race might be
+equally represented. Tarquin was murdered by hired agents of the sons
+of Ancus Martius, who hoped thus to secure for themselves the throne
+of their father. But the Roman monarchy was strictly elective, not
+hereditary; their crime failed of its purpose, and Servius Tul´lius, an
+Etruscan general, and son-in-law of the murdered king, obtained the crown.
+
+=19.= He made radical changes in the constitution, by giving to every
+free Roman the right of suffrage, though all offices in the government
+were still held by the nobles. The Greek cities of southern Italy
+were, at the same time, changing from aristocratic to popular forms of
+government, and there are many signs of Greek influence in Latium and
+Rome. The new popular assembly, _Comitia Centuria´ta_, was so called from
+the “centuries” in which the entire citizen-soldiery was enrolled. Wealth
+now acquired in Rome something of the power which had hitherto been
+reserved for rank. Every man who held property was bound to serve in the
+armies, and his military position was accurately graded by the amount of
+his possessions. Highest of all were the _Eq´uites_, or horsemen. These
+were divided into eighteen centuries, of which the first six—two for each
+original tribe—were wholly patrician, while the remaining twelve were
+wealthy and powerful plebeians.
+
+The mass of the people enrolled for service on foot was divided into five
+classes. Those who were able to equip themselves in complete brazen armor
+fought in the front rank of the phalanx. Of this class there were eighty
+centuries: forty of younger men, from seventeen to forty-five years of
+age, who were the choicest of Roman infantry in the field; and forty of
+their elders, from forty-six to sixty, who were usually retained for the
+defense of the city. The second class were placed behind the first; they
+wore no coat of mail, and their shields were of wood instead of brass.
+The third class wore no greaves, and the fourth carried no shields.
+These three classes consisted of only twenty centuries each. The fifth
+and lowest military class did not serve in the phalanx, but formed the
+light-armed infantry, and provided themselves only with darts and slings.
+Below all the classes were a few centuries of the poorest people, who
+were not required to equip themselves for war. They were sometimes armed,
+at the public expense, on occasions of great loss or danger to the state;
+or they followed the army as supernumeraries, and were ready to take the
+weapons and places of those who fell.
+
+=20.= Beside the patrician tribes of Ramnes, Tities, and Luceres, Servius
+made four tribes in the city and twenty-six in the country, consisting
+of land-owners without respect to rank. The meeting-place for the whole
+thirty was the Forum at Rome, while the centuries met without the city on
+the Field of Mars. The people assembled in the Forum had all the powers
+of self-government. They elected magistrates and levied taxes for the
+support of the state, duties which hitherto had belonged to the Comitia
+Curiata. Of the public lands on the Etruscan side of the Tiber, gained in
+his early wars, Servius assigned a certain portion to the plebeians, in
+full ownership. The patricians had leased these lands from the state for
+the pasturage of their flocks, and they were much exasperated by the new
+allotment.
+
+=21.= Servius extended the bounds of the city far beyond the Roma
+Quadra´ta of the Palatine. The Esquiline, Cælian, and Aventine hills had
+already been occupied by surburban settlements, while the Capitoline,
+Quirinal, and Vim´inal were held by the Sabine tribes. These Seven
+Hills,[64] with a large space between and around them, were inclosed by
+Servius in a new wall, which lasted more than eight hundred years, until
+the time of the emperor Aurelian. Servius reigned forty-four years, B. C.
+578-534. Desirous above all things for the continuance of his reformed
+institutions, he had determined to abdicate the throne, after causing the
+people, by a free and universal vote, to elect two magistrates who should
+rule but one year. Before the end of their term they were to provide, in
+like manner, for the peaceful choice of their successors; and thus Rome
+would have passed, by a bloodless revolution, to a popular government.
+The nobles, however, revolted against this infringement of their
+exclusive rights. Led by Tarquin, son of the first monarch of that name,
+and husband of the wicked Tullia, daughter of Servius, they murdered the
+beneficent king and placed their leader on the throne.
+
+=22.= Tarquin, called “the Proud,” set aside all the popular laws of
+Servius, and restored the privileges of the “houses”; but as soon as
+he felt secure in his power, he oppressed nobles and people alike. He
+compelled the poorer classes to toil upon the public works which his
+father had begun, and upon others which he himself originated. Such
+were the permanent stone seats of the Circus Maximus, a new system of
+sewers, and the great Temple of Jupiter on the Capitoline Hill. By wars
+or intrigues, Tarquin made himself supreme throughout Latium. But his
+insolence disgusted the patricians; he took away the property or lives of
+citizens without consulting the Senate, while he imposed upon them civil
+and military burdens beyond what the law permitted. The vile misconduct
+of his son Sextus led at last to a revolt, in which kingly government was
+overthrown. The Tarquins and all their clan were banished. The very name
+of king was thenceforth held in especial abhorrence at Rome. Only in one
+case was it tolerated. A “king for offering sacrifices” was appointed,
+that the gods might not miss their usual mediator with men; but this
+sacerdotal king was forbidden to hold any civil office.
+
+
+RECAPITULATION.
+
+    Early history of Rome is largely fabulous. Three races in
+    Italy, of whom the Etruscans, before the rise of Rome,
+    were most powerful. Their cities, art, and religion. Rome
+    was founded by Latins, but embraced a mixed population of
+    Sabines, Etruscans, and others, which gave rise to the three
+    tribes. Three hundred noble “houses” constituted the Senate
+    and _Comitia Curiata_. Clientage. Formation of a commonalty
+    under Ancus Martius. Buildings of Tarquinius Priscus. Free
+    constitution of Servius Tullius. Division of the people into
+    centuries, both as soldiers and citizens. Thirty tribes
+    assemble in the Forum. Inclosure of the Seven Hills by the
+    Tullian Wall. Tyranny of Tarquin the Proud. Royalty abolished
+    at Rome. Supposed Chronology of the Kings: Romulus, B. C.
+    753-716; Numa, 716-673; Tullius Hostilius, 673-641; Ancus
+    Martius, 641-616; L. Tarquinius Priscus, 616-578; Servius
+    Tullius, 578-534; Tarquinius Superbus, 534-510.
+
+
+RELIGION OF ROME.
+
+=23.= Before passing to the history of the Republic, we glance at the
+religion of Rome. For the first 170 years from the foundation of the
+city, the Romans had no images of their gods. Idolatry has probably
+been, in every nation, a later corruption of an earlier and more
+spiritual worship. Roman religion was far less beautiful and varied in
+its conceptions than that of the Greeks.[65] It afforded but little
+inspiration to poetry or art, but it kept alive the homely household
+virtues, and regulated the transactions of the farm, the forum, and the
+shop, by principles drawn from a higher range of being.
+
+The chief gods of the Romans were Jupiter and Mars. The former was
+supreme; but the latter was, throughout the early history of this warlike
+people, the central object of worship. March, the first month of their
+year, was consecrated to him, and, in almost all European languages,
+still bears his name. The great war festival occupied a large portion
+of the month. During its first few days the twelve _Salii_, or leapers,
+priests of Mars, who were chosen from the noblest families, passed
+through the streets singing, dancing, and beating their rods upon their
+brazen shields. Quirinus, under whose name Romulus was worshiped, was
+only a duplicate Mars, arising from the union of the two mythologies
+of the Romans and Sabines. He had, also, his twelve leapers, and was
+honored, in February, with similar ceremonies.
+
+=24.= The celebrations of the several periods of the farmer’s year
+were next in order to the war festival. The month of April was marked
+by days of sacrifice to the nourishing earth; to Ceres, the goddess
+of growth; to the patroness of flocks; and to Jupiter, the protector
+of vines; while a deprecatory offering was made to Rust, the enemy of
+crops. In May the Arval Brothers, a company of twelve priests, held
+their three days’ festival in honor of Dea Dia, invoking her blessing in
+maintaining the fertility of the earth, and granting prosperity to the
+whole territory of Rome. August had its harvest festivals; October, its
+wine celebration in honor of Jupiter; December, its two thanksgivings
+for the treasures of the granary, its Saturnalia or seed-sowing on the
+17th, and its celebration of the shortest day, which brought back the new
+sun. Sailors had their festivals in honor, respectively, of the gods of
+the river, the harbor, and the sea. The ceremonial year was closed with
+the singular Lu´perca´lia, or wolf festival, in which a certain order
+of priests, girdled with goat-skins, leaped about like wolves, or ran
+through the city scourging the spectators with knotted thongs; and by the
+Ter´mina´lia, or boundary-stone festival in honor of Ter´minus, the god
+of landmarks.
+
+Janus, the double-faced god of beginnings, was a peculiarly Roman
+divinity. To him all gates and doors were sacred, as well as the morning,
+the opening of all solemnities, and the month (January) in which the
+labors of the husbandman began anew in southern Italy. Sacrifices were
+offered to him on twelve altars, and prayers at the beginning of every
+day. New-year’s day was especially sacred to him, and was supposed to
+impart its character to the whole year. People were careful, therefore,
+to have their thoughts, words, and acts, on that day pure, beneficent,
+and just. They greeted each other with gifts and good wishes, and
+performed some part of whatever work they had planned for the year; while
+they were much dispirited if any trifling accident occurred. A covered
+passage between the Palatine and Quirinal hills, _i. e._, between the
+original Roman and Sabine cities, was known by the name of Janus. Armies
+going out or returning passed through it, and hence it was always open
+in time of war and closed in peace. The same ceremony was continued
+after the passage had ceased to be used, the triumphal gate having been
+constructed in the walls of Servius.
+
+[Illustration: ITALY, WITH THE ELEVEN REGIONS OF AUGUSTUS.]
+
+=25.= Vulcan, the god of fire and the forge, was honored by two
+festivals, the consecration of trumpets in May, and the Vol´cana´lia in
+August. Though of inferior rank to the divinities already mentioned,
+yet dearest of all to the Romans, were the gods of the hearth, the
+household, and store-room, and of the forest and field. Every house
+was a temple, and every meal a sacrifice to Vesta, the goddess of the
+hearth. Her temple was the hearth-stone of the city. There six chosen
+maidens, daughters of the most illustrious families, guarded the sacred
+fire, which was the symbol of the goddess, by night and day. Every house
+had over its main entrance a little chapel of the _La´res_, where the
+father of the family performed his devotions immediately on returning
+from any journey. The Lares were supposed to be the spirits of good
+men, especially the deceased ancestors of the family. Public Lares were
+the protecting spirits of the city; they were worshiped in a temple and
+numerous chapels, the latter being placed at the crossings of streets.
+There were also rural Lares, and _Lares Via´les_, who were worshiped by
+travelers.
+
+=26.= Like all people in any degree affected by Greek culture, the Romans
+consulted the Delphic oracle. After the capture of Ve´ii (see § 57), they
+presented that shrine with a tenth of the spoils. Rome itself possessed
+only one oracle, that of Faunus (the favoring god), on the Aventine Hill.
+Several oracles of Fortune, Faunus, and Mars existed in Latium, but in
+none of them were audible responses given, by the mouth of inspired
+persons, as at Delphi. At Albu´nea, near Tibur, Faunus was consulted by
+the sacrifice of a sheep. The skin of the animal was spread upon the
+ground; the person seeking direction slept upon it, and believed that he
+learned the will of the god by visions and dreams. The Romans frequently
+resorted to the Greek oracles in southern Italy; and the most acceptable
+gift which the inhabitants of Magna Græcia could offer to their friends
+in Rome, was a palm-leaf inscribed with some utterance of the Cumæan
+sibyl, a priestess of Apollo at Cumæ, near Naples.
+
+=27.= The Sibylline Books were believed to have been purchased by one
+of the Tarquins from a mysterious woman, who appeared at Rome offering
+nine volumes at an exorbitant price. The king refusing to purchase, the
+sibyl went away and destroyed three of the books; then brought back
+the remaining six, for which she asked the same amount of money. The
+king again sent her away; she destroyed three more books, and demanded
+the whole price for the remaining three. The curiosity of Tarquin was
+aroused, and he bought the books, which were found to contain important
+revelations concerning the fate of Rome. They were kept in a stone
+chest under the temple of Jupiter Cap´itoli´nus. One of the four sacred
+colleges was charged with the care of them, and they were only consulted,
+by order of the Senate, on occasions of great public calamity.
+
+=28.= The Romans probably learned from the Etruscans their various
+methods of divination—the interpretation of signs in the heavens, of
+thunder and lightning, of the flight or voice of birds, of the appearance
+of sacrifices, and of dreams. The legends ascribed to Tarquinius Priscus
+the introduction of Etruscan divinities and modes of worship into
+Rome. At a later time, the Senate provided by special decree for the
+cultivation of “Etruscan discipline” by young men of the highest birth,
+lest a science so important to the commonwealth should be corrupted by
+falling into the hands of low and mercenary persons.
+
+The _Augurs_ constituted the second of the sacred colleges; their number
+was gradually increased from three to sixteen; they were distinguished
+by a sacred dress and a curved staff, and were held in the highest
+honor. No public act of any kind could be performed without “taking
+the auguries”—no election held, no law passed, no war declared; for,
+by theory, the gods were the rulers of the state, and the magistrates
+merely their deputies. If, in the midst of the comitia, an augur, however
+falsely, declared that it thundered, the Assembly broke up at once. It
+must be admitted that the augurs often used their great power unfairly
+in the political strife between patricians and plebeians. The latter, as
+originally foreigners (see § 17), were held to have no share in the gods
+of Rome, who thus became the exclusive patrons of the privileged class.
+When, by a change in the constitution, plebeians were at length elected
+to high offices, the augurs in several cases declared the election null,
+on the pretext that the auspices had been irregular; and as no one could
+appeal from their decision, their veto was absolute.
+
+=29.= The College of Pontiffs was the most illustrious of the religious
+institutions attributed to the good king Numa. The pontiffs superintended
+all public worship according to their sacred books, and were required
+to give instruction to all who asked it, concerning the ceremonies with
+which the gods might be approached. Whenever sacred officers were to be
+appointed, or wills read, they convoked the Assembly. Certain cases of
+sacrilegious crime could only be judged by them; and in very early times,
+like the Hebrew scribes, they were the sole possessors of both civil and
+religious law. The highest magistrate, equally with private persons,
+submitted to their decrees, provided three members of the college agreed
+in the decision. They alone knew what days and hours might be used for
+the transaction of public business. The calendar was in their keeping,
+and—since these august and reverend dignitaries were only men—it is well
+known that they sometimes used their power to lengthen the year’s office
+of a favorite consul, or to shorten that of one whom they disapproved.
+The title of Pon´tifex Maximus, or Supreme Pontiff, was adopted by the
+Roman emperors, and passed from them to the popes or bishops of modern
+Rome.
+
+=30.= The fourth of the sacred colleges consisted of the _Fetia´les_, or
+heralds, who were the guardians of the public faith in all dealings with
+foreign nations. If war was to be declared, it was the duty of a herald
+to enter the enemy’s country, and four times—once on either side of the
+Roman boundary, then to the first citizen whom he chanced to meet, and,
+finally, to the magistrates at the seat of government—to set forth the
+causes of complaint, and with great solemnity to call on Jupiter to give
+victory to those whose cause was just.
+
+The priests of particular gods were called _Flamens_, or kindlers,
+because one of their principal duties was the offering of sacrifices by
+fire. Chief of them all was the Flamen Dialis, or priest of Jupiter; and
+next to him were the priests of Mars and Quirinus. Though the purity
+and dignity of the priestly life were guarded by many curious laws, the
+priest was not forbidden to hold civil offices. He was not allowed,
+however, to mount a horse, to look upon an army outside the walls, or, in
+early times, to leave the city for even a single night.
+
+=31.= After the good king Servius Tullius had completed his census,
+he performed a solemn purification of the city and people. During
+the Republic, the same ceremony was repeated after every general
+registration, which took place once in five years. Sacrifices of a pig, a
+sheep, and an ox were offered; water was sprinkled from olive-branches,
+and certain substances were burned, whose smoke was supposed to have a
+cleansing effect. In like manner, farmers purified their fields, and
+shepherds their flocks. An army or a fleet always underwent lustration
+before setting out on any enterprise. In the case of the latter,
+altars were erected on the shore near which the ships were moored. The
+sacrifices were carried three times around the fleet, in a small boat,
+by the generals and priests, while prayers were offered aloud for the
+success of the expedition.
+
+
+RECAPITULATION.
+
+    Roman religion less imaginative and more practical than the
+    Greek. Jupiter, Mars, and Quirinus its chief divinities. Yearly
+    festivals had reference chiefly to war and husbandry. Worship
+    of Janus. Household gods. The Romans shared their belief in
+    oracles with the Greeks; their arts of divination, with the
+    Etruscans. Four Sacred Colleges: Pontiffs, Augurs, Heralds,
+    and Keepers of the Sibylline Books. Priests might hold civil
+    offices. Ceremonial cleansing of the city after every census;
+    of armies and fleets before every expedition.
+
+
+II. THE ROMAN REPUBLIC.
+
+=32.= The 480 years’ history of the Roman Republic will be best
+understood if divided into four periods:
+
+    I. The Growth of the Constitution, B. C. 510-343.
+
+    II. Wars for the possession of Italy, B. C. 343-264.
+
+    III. Foreign Wars, by which Rome became the ruling power in the
+    world, B. C. 264-133.
+
+    IV. Internal Commotions and Civil Wars, B. C. 133-31.
+
+The leaders of the revolution which expelled the Tarquins, restored the
+laws of Servius and carried forward his plans, by causing the election
+of two chief magistrates, of whom one was probably a plebeian. The
+_consuls_, during their year of office, had all the power and dignity of
+kings. They were preceded in public by their guard of twelve lictors,
+bearing the _fasces_, or bundles of rods. Out of the city, when the
+consul was engaged in military command, an ax was bound up with the rods,
+in token of his absolute power over life and death.
+
+=33.= For 150 years the Republic was involved in a struggle for
+existence, during which its power was much less than that of regal Rome.
+The Latins threw off their supremacy, and Lars Por´sena, the Etruscan
+king of Clu´sium, actually conquered the city, and received from the
+Senate an ivory throne, a golden crown, a scepter, and triumphal robe,
+in token of homage. In their further attempts upon Latium, the Etruscans
+were defeated, and Rome became independent, but with the loss of all
+her territories west of the Tiber. The Latins were defeated at the Lake
+Regillus, by the aid—so Roman minstrels related—of the twin deities,
+Castor and Pollux, who appeared at the head of the legions, in the form
+of two beautiful youths of more than mortal stature, mounted on white
+horses, and who were the first to break through into the enemy’s camp.
+A temple was consequently built to them in the Forum, and they were
+regarded as the especial patrons of the Roman knights.
+
+=34.= External dangers over, the patricians again made their power felt
+in the oppression of the common people. The first period of the Republic
+was absorbed in conflicts between the two great orders in the state—less
+attractive, certainly, than the romantic stories of the kingly age, or
+the stirring incidents of the later period of conquest. But the steps by
+which a great people has gained and established its freedom can never be
+without importance, especially to the only republic which has rivaled
+Rome in grandeur, in variety of interests, or in the multitude of races
+and languages included eventually within its limits.
+
+=35.= The wealth of Rome hitherto had been chiefly derived from the
+products of the soil. The lands west of the Tiber were now lost, and
+all the rural district was open to invasion. Crops were ruined, farm
+buildings destroyed, cattle driven away. At the same time, through the
+losses and necessities of the government, taxes were greatly increased;
+and these were levied, not upon the reduced value of the property, but
+upon the scale of former assessments. To meet their dues, the poor were
+obliged to borrow money, at enormous rates of interest, from the rich.
+The nobles seized the opportunity to enforce to their full extent the
+cruel laws concerning debt, and the sufferings of the insolvent grew too
+grievous to be borne. Many sold themselves as slaves to discharge their
+obligations. Those who refused thus to sign away their own and their
+children’s liberty were often imprisoned, loaded with chains, and starved
+or tortured by the cruelty of their creditors. The patrician castles,
+which commanded the hills of Rome, contained gloomy dungeons, which were
+the scenes of untold atrocities toward such as had the misfortune to
+incur the wrath of their owners.
+
+=36.= Fifteen years after the expulsion of the kings, the plebeians,
+wearied out with a government which existed only for the rich, and
+imposed all its burdens on the poor, withdrew in a body to a hill beyond
+the Anio, and declared their intention of founding a new city, where
+they might govern themselves by more just and equal laws, B. C. 494.
+The patricians now perceived that they had gone too far. However much
+they hated the people, they had no idea of losing their services. They
+yielded, therefore, and received back the seceded plebeians on their own
+conditions. These were: (1.) Cancellation of claims against insolvent
+debtors; (2.) Liberation of all such who had been imprisoned or enslaved;
+(3.) Annual election of two _Tribunes_, whose duty it should be to defend
+the interests of the commons. The number of these officers was soon
+raised to five, and eventually to ten. Two plebeian _Æ´diles_ were at the
+same time appointed, and charged with the superintendence of streets,
+buildings, markets, and public lands; of the public games and festivals,
+and of the general order of the city. They were judges in cases of small
+importance, like those of modern police courts; and they were eventually
+intrusted with the keeping of the decrees of the Senate, which had
+sometimes been tampered with by the patrician magistrates.
+
+=37.= The scene of this first decisive battle of the people for their
+rights, was consecrated to Jupiter, and known in later years as the
+Sacred Mount (_Mons Sacer_). The Roman commons had thenceforth an
+important part in public affairs. To prevent suffering in future,
+Spurius Cassius, consul in the year following the secession, proposed
+a division among the plebeians of a certain part of the public lands,
+while the tithe of produce levied by the state upon the lands leased by
+the patricians, should be strictly collected and applied to the payment
+of the common people when they served as soldiers. Hitherto the troops
+had received no pay, while their burden of war expenses was great. The
+other consul opposed the law, and charged Cassius with seeking popularity
+that he might make himself a king. The law—the first of a long series of
+“Agrarian” enactments—was passed; but when the year of his consulship had
+expired, Cassius was brought to trial by his enemies, and condemned as
+a traitor. He was scourged and beheaded, and his house was razed to the
+ground, B. C. 485.
+
+=38.= Having destroyed the leader, the patricians went on to rob the
+people of all the advantage of the law. They insisted on electing both
+consuls themselves, only requiring their confirmation by the popular
+assemblies; and with or without this confirmation, their candidates held
+supreme power, and refused to divide the public lands. The only resource
+of the commons was to withhold themselves from military service, and the
+tribunes now made their power felt by protecting them in refusing to
+enlist. The consuls defeated this measure by holding their recruiting
+stations outside of the city, while the jurisdiction of the tribunes was
+wholly within the walls. Though a man might keep himself safe within the
+protection of the tribunes, yet his lands were laid waste, his buildings
+burnt, and his cattle confiscated by order of the government. One last
+expedient remained. Though compelled to enlist, the soldiers could not be
+made to gain a battle; and considering the consul who led them, and the
+class to which he belonged, worse enemies than those whom they met in the
+field, they allowed themselves to be defeated by the Veientians.
+
+=39.= The noble house of the Fa´bii, as champions of the nobility, had
+been for six successive years in possession of the consulship. They
+now saw the danger to Rome of longer opposition to the will of the
+people; and when Kæso Fabius, in the year 479 B. C., came into power, he
+insisted upon the execution of the Cassian law. The patricians refused
+with scorn, and the Fabii resolved to quit Rome. With their hundreds
+of clients, their families, and a few burghers who were attached to
+them by friendship and sympathy, they established a colony in Etruria,
+on the little river Crem´era, a few miles from the city. They promised
+to be no less loyal and valiant defenders of Roman interests, and to
+maintain with their own resources this advanced post, in the war then in
+progress against Veii. Two years from their migration, the settlement was
+surprised by the Veientians, and every man was put to death, B. C. 477.
+
+=40.= The consuls still refused to comply with the Agrarian law, and
+at the expiration of their term were impeached by Genu´cius, one of
+the tribunes of the people. On the morning of the day appointed for
+the trial, Genucius was found murdered in his bed, B. C. 473. This
+treacherous act paralyzed the people for the moment, and the consuls
+proceeded with the enlistment of soldiers. Vo´lero Publi´lius, a strong
+and active commoner, refused to be enrolled; and in the tumult which
+ensued, the consuls with all their retinue were driven from the Forum.
+
+The next year Volero was chosen tribune, and brought forward a law that
+the tribunes should thenceforth be elected by the commons alone in
+their tribes, instead of by the entire people in the centuries. This
+was designed to avoid the overwhelming vote of the clients of the great
+houses, who were obliged to obey the decrees of their patrons, and who
+often controlled the action of the general assembly. For a whole year
+the patricians contrived, by various delays, to prevent the passage
+of the bill. Ap´pius Clau´dius, one of the consuls, stationed himself
+with an armed force in the Forum to oppose it; and it was not until the
+plebeians, resorting in their turn to force, had seized the Capitol,
+and held it for some time under military guard, that the Publilian law
+was passed. This “second Great Charter of Roman liberties” gave the
+tribes not only the power of electing tribunes and ædiles, but of first
+discussing all questions which concerned the entire nation. It was a long
+step toward the gaining of equal rights by the commons, B. C. 471.
+
+=41.= In the meanwhile, the Romans were carrying on wars with the Æqui
+and Volsci, two Oscan nations which had taken advantage of the changes
+in the Latin League, to extend their power to the cities on the Alban
+Mount and over the southern plain of Latium. Their forays extended to the
+very gates of Rome, driving the country people to take refuge, with their
+cattle, within the walls, where a plague then raging added the horrors of
+pestilence to those of war. It is probable that the civil conflicts in
+Rome had caused the exile of many citizens; and these, in most instances,
+joined the hostile nations. Rome was the champion of oligarchy among
+the cities of Italy, as Sparta was among those of Greece. The spirit of
+party was often stronger than patriotism; the sympathy between Roman and
+foreign aristocrats was greater than between patrician and plebeian at
+home; and thus an exiled noble was willing to become the destroyer of his
+country.
+
+=42.= The story of Coriola´nus may be partly fictitious, but it truly
+illustrates the condition of the Republic at that period. Caius Marcius,
+a descendant of the fourth king of Rome, was the pride of the patricians
+for his warlike virtues, and had won his surname Coriolanus by capturing
+the Volscian town of Cori´oli by his individual gallantry. But he was
+bitterly opposed to the common people, and when he was about to be tried
+before the comitia for having opposed a distribution of corn, he fled and
+took refuge among the Volscians, whom he had formerly conquered. The king
+warmly welcomed him, and seized the first opportunity to stir up a new
+war with the Romans, that he might turn against them the arms of their
+best leader. When the Volscian army approached Rome, the Senate sent
+deputies to demand peace, but Caius refused all terms except such as were
+impossible for the Republic to grant. The priests and augurs next went to
+plead with him, but without effect.
+
+At last the noble ladies of Rome, headed by Volum´nia, the mother of
+Caius, and his wife, Vergil´ia, with her young children, went out in a
+sad and solemn procession to plead for their sacred city. Coriolanus
+honored, above all, the mother to whose wise and faithful care he owed
+his greatness. He sprang to meet her with fitting reverence, but before
+she would receive his greeting, Volumnia exclaimed: “Let me know whether
+I stand, in thy camp, thy prisoner or thy mother; whether I am speaking
+to an enemy or to my son!” Her reproaches silenced Caius; the entreaties
+of his wife and children, and the tears of the noble ladies, moved him
+from his purpose. He exclaimed, “Mother, thine is the victory; thou hast
+saved Rome, but thou hast lost thy son!” He led away the Volscian army.
+Some say he fell a victim to their revenge; but others, that he lived on
+among them to extreme old age, and lamented, in the desolateness of his
+years of infirmity, the factious pride that had exiled him from wife,
+children, and native land.
+
+=43.= In the meantime, Rome suffered another visitation of pestilence,
+in which thousands of people died daily in the streets. The Æquians
+and Volscians ravaged the country up to the walls of Rome; and in
+addition to their other miseries, the crowded multitude were threatened
+with starvation. Their civil grievances were not to be redressed by
+anything less than a thorough and radical reform. In the year 462 B.
+C., the tribune Terenti´lius Harsa proposed the appointment of a board
+of ten commissioners, half patrician and half plebeian, to revise the
+constitution, define the duties of consuls and tribunes, and frame a code
+of laws from the mass of decisions and precedents. This movement was
+the occasion for ten years of violent contention, during which Rome was
+several times near falling into the hands of the Volscians, and was once
+actually occupied by a band of exiles and slaves under a Sabine leader,
+Herdo´nius, who seized the Capitol and demanded the restoration of all
+banished citizens to their rights in Rome.
+
+=44.= Chief of the exiles was Kæso Quinc´tius, son of the great
+Cincinna´tus, who had been expelled for raising riots in the Forum, to
+prevent any action of the people upon the Terentilian law. The invading
+party was defeated, and every man slain. The father of Kæso was then
+consul. In revenge for the fate of his son, he declared that the law
+should never pass while he was in office; and that he would immediately
+lead the entire citizen-soldiery out to war, thus preventing a meeting of
+the tribes. Nay more, the augurs were to accompany him, and so consecrate
+the ground of the encampment, that a lawful assembly could be held under
+the absolute power of the consuls, and repeal all the laws which had
+ever been enacted at Rome under the authority of the tribunes. At the
+close of his term, Cincinnatus declared that he would appoint a dictator,
+whose authority would supersede that of all other officers, patrician or
+plebeian. All these things could be done under the strict forms of the
+Roman constitution; but the Senate and the wiser patricians saw that the
+patience of the commons might be taxed too far, and persuaded Cincinnatus
+to forego so extreme an exercise of his power.
+
+=45.= War with the Æquians went on, and treaties were only made to be
+broken. In the year 458 B. C., the entire Roman army was entrapped in a
+pass of the Alban Hills, surrounded by the enemy, and in imminent danger
+of destruction. In this crisis, Cincinnatus, who had retired from the
+consulship to resume his favorite toil of farming, was called to be
+dictator, with absolute power. The messengers of the Senate found him at
+his plow, in his little garden-plot across the Tiber. He left the plow in
+the furrow, hastened to Rome, levied a new army in a single day, went out
+and defeated the Æquians, and returned the next evening in triumph.
+
+
+RECAPITULATION.
+
+    Consuls are appointed with kingly power, but for a limited
+    time. Rome subject to Porsena. The Latins are defeated at the
+    Lake Regillus. Roman nobles oppress their debtors, and the poor
+    secede. Tribunes of the people and ædiles are appointed. The
+    first Agrarian Law is proposed by Cassius, B. C. 486. To avenge
+    the tyranny of their consuls, the common soldiers refuse to
+    fight. The Fabii take sides with the people, and are destroyed
+    in their colony on the Cremera. The Publilian Laws give the
+    election of officers to the people in their tribes, B. C. 471.
+    War and pestilence. Ten years’ debate upon the Terentilian
+    Laws, which propose a revision of the constitution, B. C.
+    462-452. The Capitol seized by exiles and Sabines. Cincinnatus,
+    as a noble, opposes the commons, but, as a general, saves Rome.
+
+
+THE LAWS OF THE TWELVE TABLES.
+
+=46.= The passage of the Terentilian law was delayed six years, but
+at length the nobles yielded the main point, and the _decemviri_ were
+chosen. Though wholly patrician, they were men who enjoyed the confidence
+of both orders for their proved integrity. Both consuls and tribunes
+were superseded for the time, and full powers, constituent, legislative,
+and executive, were intrusted to the Ten. The laws of the Twelve Tables,
+which were the result of their labors, became the “source of all public
+and private right” at Rome for many centuries. During the debate upon the
+bill, commissioners had already been sent to Greece, to study the laws
+and constitution of the Hellenic states. They returned with an Ionian
+sophist, Hermodo´rus of Ephesus, who aided in explaining to the lawmakers
+whatever was obscure in the notes of the commissioners; and so valuable
+were his services, that he was honored with a statue in the Roman
+_comitium_.
+
+=47.= Only a few points in this celebrated work of legislation can here
+be noticed. The laws of Rome gave to a father absolute right of property
+in his family. He might sell his son, his daughter, or even his wife.
+The latter act, indeed, was denounced as impious by the religious law,
+but no penalty was attached to it; the curse of the chief pontiff merely
+marked the guilty person for the wrathful judgments of Heaven. If a
+father desired to make his son free, the process was more difficult than
+the emancipation of a slave. The latter, if sold to another master, could
+be liberated at once, but a son thus sold and liberated returned to the
+possession of his father. This subjection could only end with the death
+of the parent, though the son himself might then be an old man. The
+Twelve Tables enacted that, if a father had three times sold his son,
+he lost all further control over him; but a son thus emancipated was
+considered as severed from all relationship with his father, and could
+no longer inherit his property. Women were all their lives considered as
+minors and wards. If their father died, they passed under the control of
+their brothers; or, if they married, they became the absolute property of
+their husbands. A widow might become the ward of her own son. Marriages
+between patricians and plebeians were declared unlawful, and children
+born in such had no claim upon their fathers’ possessions.
+
+=48.= The ten Law-givers visited with their heaviest penalties the
+defamation of character; and so stringent was their definition of libel,
+that neither poets nor historians dared even name the living except
+in terms of praise. It is much more difficult, therefore, to gain a
+true idea of public men in the history of Rome than of Greece, whose
+historians spoke with grand impartiality of men and measures, and the
+license of whose comic poets, though often used with insolent injustice,
+yet shows us all the weak points of character, and reveals the man as his
+contemporaries really saw him. The Roman historians, even when writing of
+the past, could often draw their materials only from funeral orations, or
+from the flattering verses of dependent poets, laid up among the records
+of great families.
+
+=49.= The decemvirs, during their appointed year of office, completed
+ten tables of laws; and these, according to Roman ideas, were so just
+and so acceptable, that the assemblies willingly consented to renew
+the same form of government for another term, especially as the work
+of legislation was not quite complete. In the new decemvirate, Appius
+Claudius was re-elected, and his unscrupulous character now made itself
+felt in the tyrannical nature of the government. The people found that
+they had ten consuls instead of two, and the power of the Ten was
+unchecked by any popular tribune.
+
+=50.= The domestic rights of the plebeians were rudely invaded. A fair
+maiden, Virginia, caught the eye of Appius as she went daily to school
+in the Forum, attended by her nurse. He declared that she was the slave
+of one of his clients, having been born of a slave-woman in his house,
+and sold to the wife of Virginius, who had no children of her own. The
+friends of Virginia and of the people resented this insolent falsehood
+with such indignation, that the consul’s officers were compelled to
+release the maiden under bonds to appear the next day before his
+judgment-seat, where her lineage might be proved.
+
+Virginius, her father, was with the army before Tus´culum. He was hastily
+summoned, and, riding all night, reached the city early in the morning.
+In the garb of a suppliant, he appeared in the Forum with his daughter
+and a great company of matrons and friends. But his plea was not heard.
+Appius judged the maiden to be, at least, considered a slave until her
+freedom could be proved, in direct violation of the law which he had
+himself enacted the year before, that every one should be regarded as
+free until proved a slave. Virginius perceived that no justice could be
+expected before such a tribunal. He only demanded one last word with
+his daughter; and having drawn her aside with her nurse into one of the
+stalls of the Forum, he seized a butcher’s knife and plunged it into her
+heart, crying aloud, “Thus only, my child, can I keep thee free!” Then
+turning to the decemvir, he exclaimed, “On thy head be the curse of this
+innocent blood!” No one obeyed the consul’s order to seize him. With the
+bloody knife in his hand, he rushed through the crowd, mounted his horse
+at the gate of the city, and rode to the camp.
+
+=51.= The army of plebeians arose at his call and marched upon Rome. They
+entered and passed through the streets to the Aventine, calling upon the
+people, as they went, to elect ten tribunes and defend their rights. The
+other army, near Fide´næ, was aroused in the same manner by Icil´ius, the
+betrothed lover of Virginia. The common soldiers put aside those of the
+decemvirs who were with them, chose, likewise, ten tribunes, and marched
+to the city. The twenty tribunes appointed two of their number to act
+for the rest, and then leaving the Aventine guarded by a garrison, they
+passed out of the walls followed by the army, and as many of the people
+as could remove, and established themselves again on the Sacred Mount
+beyond the Anio.
+
+=52.= The Senate, which had wavered, was now compelled to act. The
+seceders had declared that they would treat with no one but Valerius
+and Hora´tius, men whom they could trust. These were sent to hear their
+demands. The people required that the power of the tribunes should be
+restored, a right of appeal from the decision of the magistrates to the
+popular assembly established, and the decemvirs given up to be burnt,
+as nine friends of the commons had been, within the memory of men still
+living. This latter demand, caused only by the exasperation of the
+moment, was withdrawn upon maturer council; the others were granted, the
+decemvirs resigned, and the people returned to Rome, B. C. 449. A popular
+assembly was held, in which ten tribunes were elected, Virginius and
+Icilius being of the number. Two supreme magistrates were chosen by a
+free vote of the people; in the place of the decemvirate, and they were
+now first called consuls. Their powers were the same with those of the
+prætors, or generals, who had ruled from the expulsion of the kings to
+the appointment of the first decemvirate, except that an appeal might be
+made from their sentence to that of the comitia.
+
+The first consuls under this new act were Valerius and Horatius. They
+went forth and gained so signal a victory over the Sabines, that Rome
+suffered no more incursions from that people for 150 years. Ancient
+custom and even law among the Romans honored victorious generals with
+a triumphal entry into the city on their return; but the Senate, whose
+duty it was to decree the triumph, regarding the consuls as false to
+the interests of their order, forbade any such honor to be paid them.
+Hereupon the people exerted their supreme authority, and commanded the
+consuls to “triumph” in spite of the Senate. (See §§ 109-111.) Appius
+Claudius and one of his colleagues were impeached and died in prison; the
+rest fled from Rome, and their property was confiscated.
+
+=53.= A strong reaction now set in, in favor of the patricians; and
+so determined was their opposition to the new laws, that the people
+seceded again, but this time only to the Janiculum, west of the Tiber
+and opposite Rome. At last a law was passed legalizing marriage between
+the two orders. Instead of throwing open the consulship freely to the
+plebeians, it was agreed (B. C. 444) to divide its duties and dignities
+among five officers, of whom two, the censors, should be chosen only from
+the nobles, though by a free vote of the tribes, while the three military
+tribunes might be either patricians or plebeians. The censors were to
+hold office five years, the tribunes only one.
+
+For some alleged defect in the auspices (see § 28), the first three
+tribunes were set aside, and for six years consuls were regularly
+appointed as before. In 438 B. C., tribunes were elected, and for three
+following years consuls again, showing the extreme difficulty with which
+the people gained their rights, even when conceded by law. In 433 B. C.,
+an important law of Æmilius, the dictator, limited the duration of the
+censor’s office to eighteen months, though he was still appointed only
+once in five years, thus leaving the place vacant a much greater time
+than it was filled.
+
+=54.= The censors were invested with truly kingly splendor and
+extraordinary powers. They registered the citizens and their property,
+administered the revenues of the state, kept the rolls of the Senate,
+from which they erased all unworthy names, and added such as they
+considered fit. In this judgment of character they were guided solely
+by their own sense of duty. If a man was tyrannical to his wife and
+children, or cruel to his slaves, if he neglected his land, or wasted his
+fortune, or followed any dishonorable calling, he was degraded from his
+rank, whatever that might be. If a senator or a knight, he was deprived
+of his gold ring and purple-striped tunic; if a private citizen, he
+was expelled from the tribes and lost his vote. The censors were thus
+the guardians of morals, and their power extended to many matters which
+could hardly be reached by the general action of the law. The taking of
+every census was followed by a lustration, or ceremonial purifying of the
+people (see § 31). Hence, the five years which intervened between two
+elections of censors were called a _lustrum_, or greater year.
+
+=55.= The Romans must have watched with interest, during the years 415
+and 414 B. C., the movements of the great Athenian expedition against
+Syracuse. Had the brilliant schemes of Alcibiades been carried into
+effect, the Greeks would doubtless have become the leading power in
+western Europe; “Greece, and not Rome, might have conquered Carthage;
+Greek, instead of Latin, might have been at this day the principal
+element of the languages of Spain, of France, and of Italy; and the laws
+of Athens, rather than of Rome, might be the foundation of the law of the
+civilized world.”
+
+
+RECAPITULATION.
+
+    Decemviri chosen to make new laws for Rome. Absolute power of
+    the _paterfamilias_. Laws against libel make Roman history mere
+    eulogium. Tyranny of the second decemvirate. Appius Claudius
+    unjustly claims Virginia for a slave. The people secede,
+    overthrow the decemvirate, and restore consuls and tribunes.
+    The new consuls defeat the Sabines, and triumph in spite of the
+    Senate. By another change of constitution, censors and military
+    tribunes are chosen, instead of consuls. The censors have
+    absolute power to correct public morals. The Athenians fail in
+    their Sicilian expedition, B. C. 415, 414, and leave room for
+    the supremacy of Rome.
+
+
+CAPTURE OF ROME BY THE GAULS.
+
+=56.= The Gauls were now beginning their terrible incursions from the
+north into the valley of the Po, thus absorbing the attention of the
+Etruscans; and the time favored a fresh attack of the Romans upon Veii,
+the nearest state across the Tiber. The war began B. C. 405, and lasted
+ten years. The necessity of keeping an armed force continually in the
+field, gave rise to the standing army, which ultimately made so essential
+a part of Roman power; and, at the same time, obliged the patricians to
+study the interests of the people. It was now agreed that the soldiers
+should be regularly paid, and money secured for this purpose by a careful
+collection of the rents for public lands. The number of military tribunes
+was doubled. Their chief, the præfect of the city, was a patrician, and
+chosen by that order, but the remaining five were elected from either or
+both classes, by a free vote of the popular assembly.
+
+=57.= After ten years’ warfare with varying success, Veii was taken (B.
+C. 396) by the dictator Camillus. It is said that on the very day of its
+surrender, Melpum, the Etruscan stronghold in the north, fell before
+the Gauls. The loss of these two frontier fortresses began the rapid
+decline of Etrurian power. The joy of the Romans was commemorated by
+the whimsical custom, long continued, of concluding every festal game
+with a mock auction called the “Sale of Veientes.” Cape´na, Fale´rii,
+Nep´ete, and Sunium were likewise conquered, and with their lands became
+possessions of Rome. Within half a century, the Etruscans lost to the
+Gauls all their possessions in Campania and north of the Apennines, and
+to the Romans, all between the Cimin´ian forests and the Tiber. The
+nation had already lost its force through unbounded excess in luxury. The
+nobles were enormously rich, while the people were poor and enslaved.
+
+=58.= The war of the Romans against Volsin´ii was equally successful;
+but, by a sudden and terrible reverse, Rome was now doomed to suffer the
+fate which she too often inflicted. The Gauls, after conquering northern
+Etruria, overflowed the barrier of the Apennines and spread over central
+Italy. They met the entire Roman force near the little river Al´lia,
+and defeated it with great slaughter; then pushing on with irresistible
+power, they captured and burned the city. So overwhelming was the
+disaster, that the 16th of July, the date of the battle of the Allia,
+was pronounced a “black day” of ill-omen, on which no business could be
+safely transacted and no sacrifices acceptably offered.
+
+=59.= The vestal virgins withdrew with the sacred fire to Cære, in
+Etruria; the mass of the people, with the fugitives from the conquered
+army, had taken refuge in Veii and other Etruscan towns; but the noblest
+of the patricians resolved to hold the Capitol. Those who were too old to
+fight, hoped to serve their country equally well by an heroic death. They
+repeated, after the pontifex maximus, a solemn imprecation,[66] devoting
+themselves and the army of the Gauls to death for the deliverance of
+Rome. Then, arrayed in their most magnificent apparel, holding their
+ivory scepters, and seated each upon his ivory throne at the door of
+his own house, they sat motionless while the tumult of plunder and
+pillage was going on around. The barbarians were struck with admiration
+of these venerable figures, and one of them began reverently to stroke
+the long white beard of Papir´ius. Enraged by this profaning touch, the
+old senator struck him with his ivory scepter. It was the signal for
+slaughter. The Gauls, recovering from their momentary awe, massacred the
+noble old men without delay.
+
+=60.= The siege of the Capitol continued six or eight months. At one time
+it was nearly taken, by the enemy scaling the steep cliff by night. The
+garrison were asleep, but some geese sacred to Juno gave a timely alarm,
+and the citadel was saved. Marcus Manlius, who was the first to awaken,
+succeeded in throwing several of the first assailants down the cliff,
+and thus maintained the fortress until his comrades could come to his
+aid. At length, though the garrison were nearly exhausted by hunger,
+the Gauls were equally ready to make terms, for they had heard that the
+Venetians were invading their northern possessions. A thousand pounds of
+gold were paid for the ransom of the city, and the barbarians retired.
+They were followed by Camillus, the conqueror of Veii and Falerii, who
+was now again dictator, and who, by cutting off straggling parties of the
+enemy, regained some portion of the rich booty which they were carrying
+away; but it is probably not true that he gained any important success
+over them, as was formerly believed.
+
+=61.= A period of great distress followed the retreat of the Gauls. The
+farms, upon which the livelihood of so many people depended, had been
+laid waste; their fruit-trees, buildings, implements, stock and stores,
+even to the seed-corn needed for next year’s sowing, had been burnt.
+Rome was a mass of rubbish, in which even the direction of the former
+streets could no longer be discerned. The government furnished roofing
+materials, and allowed wood and stone to be taken from the public forests
+and quarries, on condition that every person so aided would give security
+to complete his building within the year. But these pledges were often
+forfeited; and to meet the expense of rebuilding, as well as to pay the
+extraordinary taxes for restoring the fortress and the temples, money
+had to be borrowed, and the poor were again at the mercy of the rich.
+Innocent debtors were dragged from their homes, to toil as slaves in the
+shops or fields of their creditors.
+
+Many chose to remain in the Etruscan towns where they had taken refuge,
+and even to make of Veii a new Rome for the plebeians, where they might
+live free from the overbearing rule of the patricians, and be themselves
+a privileged class. Though this wholesale secession was prevented, yet
+the numbers in Rome were so greatly diminished, that a mass of the
+conquered Etruscans were brought in to fill the vacant places. These
+were provided with Roman lands, were organized into four new tribes, and
+admitted to full civil rights. The “new people” formed more than a sixth
+part of the whole population of the reconstructed city.
+
+=62.= No one could see without pity the distress of the people; but
+Marcus Manlius, the same whose alertness and presence of mind had saved
+the Capitol, had also reasons of his own for trying to relieve them.
+He was jealous of Camillus, and thought that his own services had not
+been duly rewarded. He sold at auction the best portion of his lands,
+and applied the proceeds to paying the debts of needy persons, thus
+delivering them from imprisonment and torture. He was rewarded by the
+unbounded gratitude of the poor; his house was continually thronged
+with partisans, to whom he spoke of the selfish cruelty of the nobles,
+in throwing the whole burden of the public calamity on others, and
+even accused them of embezzling the immense sums raised to replace the
+treasures of the temples, which had been borrowed to purchase the retreat
+of the Gauls.
+
+=63.= For this charge Manlius was thrown into prison, and the people
+began to regard him as a martyr to their cause. On his release, he
+renewed his attacks upon the government. He fortified his house on the
+Capitoline, and with his party held the whole height in defiance of the
+authorities. His treason was so evident, that even the tribunes of the
+people took part with the patricians against him, and he was brought to
+trial before the popular assembly.
+
+He appeared, followed by several comrades whose lives he had saved in
+battle, and by four hundred debtors whom he had rescued from the dungeon.
+He exhibited the spoils of thirty enemies slain with his own hand, and
+forty crowns or other honorary rewards received from his generals. He
+appealed to the gods, whose temples he had saved from pollution, and he
+bade the people look at the Capitol before they pronounced judgment. It
+was impossible to convict such a criminal in such a presence, for the
+very spot on the Capitol where Manlius had stood alone against the Gauls,
+was visible from the Forum. He was afterward condemned for treason and
+thrown from the Tarpeian Rock, the precipitous side of the Capitoline
+Hill, looking toward the Tiber.
+
+=64.= The power of the patricians was only confirmed by this rash and
+selfish attempt to overthrow it. For seven years the distress of the
+people went on increasing; the commons lost heart, and their eldest men
+refused any longer to accept public office. Two younger men now came
+forward, who were destined, by their firm and wise procedure, to relieve
+in great measure the miseries of their class.
+
+C. Licinius Stolo was of one of the oldest and wealthiest plebeian
+families, connected by many marriages with the nobles. Becoming tribune
+(B. C. 376), together with his friend, L. Sextius, he proposed a new
+set of laws, designed to remove both the poverty and the political
+wrongs under which the commons were suffering. (1.) To relieve immediate
+distress, it was proposed that the enormous interest already paid upon
+debts should be reckoned as so much defrayed of the principal, and
+should, therefore, be deducted from the sum still due. (2.) To prevent
+future poverty, the public lands, hitherto absorbed in great measure by
+the patricians, were to be thrown open equally to the plebeians, and no
+man was to be allowed to hold more than 500 _jugera_,[67] or to pasture
+more than 100 oxen and 500 sheep on the undivided portion. Further,
+to secure employment to the poor, a certain amount of free labor was
+required upon every farm. (3.) Two consuls were to be elected, of whom
+one every year should be a plebeian.
+
+=65.= The strongest objection to a plebeian consulship was on religious
+grounds; for high patricians held it an impiety to place in the supreme
+magistracy one who had no right to take the auspices, and whom they
+regarded as no true Roman. To attack this prejudice in the boldest
+manner, Licinius proposed to increase the number of keepers of the
+Sibylline Books from two to ten, and to appoint five of these from
+the plebeians. These laws were not passed without many years’ violent
+opposition. At length they were ratified by the Senate and the Comitia
+Curiata (B. C. 367); and to celebrate this happy agreement between the
+two orders, a Temple of Concord was built upon the Capitoline Hill. At
+the same time, a new office, the prætorship, was instituted and confined
+to the patricians, comprising most of the civil and judicial duties
+which had hitherto belonged to the consuls, while the latter kept their
+absolute military power. The first plebeian consul under this arrangement
+was L. Sextius.
+
+=66.= The restless and turbulent Gauls re-appeared in Latium, during
+the same year with the passing of the Licinian laws. They were defeated
+by the aged general Camillus, who had been six times military tribune
+and five times dictator. On their second invasion they encamped within
+five miles of the city, and struck terror, we may well believe, into
+the hearts of those who remembered the desolations of thirty years
+before; but, at length, they broke up their camp without fighting, and
+passed into Campania. On their return through Latium they were signally
+defeated. In 350 B. C., they spent the winter upon the Alban Mount, and
+joined the Greek pirates on the coast in ravaging the country, until they
+were dislodged by L. Furius Camillus, a son of the general.
+
+They made a treaty B. C. 346, after which they never again appeared in
+Latium. They continued to be the ruling race between the Alps and the
+northern Apennines, and along the Adriatic as far south as the Abruz´zi.
+Many towns, like Milan, were held, however, by the Etruscans in a sort
+of independence, while the Gauls lived in unwalled villages. From their
+Tuscan subjects, the Gauls learned letters and the arts of civilized
+life, which spread from them, in a greater or less degree, to all the
+Alpine populations.
+
+
+RECAPITULATION.
+
+    Veii taken B. C. 396, after a ten years’ siege. Defeat of the
+    Romans on the Allia, and capture of their city by the Gauls, B.
+    C. 390. Massacre of the senators. Manlius saves the Capitol,
+    during a seven months’ siege. Rome in ruins. Distress of the
+    poor. Treason of Manlius. The Licinian laws, passed after nine
+    years’ contest, relieve debtors and divide the public lands
+    among the common people. The Gauls overrun central Italy, B. C.
+    361-346, but at length retire north of the Apennines.
+
+
+SECOND PERIOD, B. C. 343-264.
+
+=67.= From the political struggles which developed the Roman
+constitution, we turn to the series of foreign wars between Rome and her
+most powerful rival for the supremacy of southern Italy. The Samnites
+were a Sabine race, settled as conquerors in the Oscan country. Their
+possessions were mostly inland, comprising the snow-covered mountain
+range which separates the Apulian from the Campanian plains, but they
+extended to the coast between Naples and Pæstum, where they included the
+once famous cities of Herculaneum and Pompeii.
+
+The Samnites ranked with the Latins, as the most warlike races of Italy;
+but the conquests of the former, at the period to which we have now come,
+had been by far the more brilliant and extensive. In the decline both of
+Greek and Etruscan power in southern Italy (see Book III, § 90), they
+had gained control of the whole lower portion of the peninsula, except
+a few Greek colonies like Tarentum and Neapolis. But Latium, under the
+leadership of Rome, had advanced surely though slowly, securing each
+advantage by the formation of Roman colonies, bound by the strongest ties
+of obedience to the mother city, while the Samnite nation had no settled
+policy and no regularly constituted head. Each new settlement, therefore,
+divided and diminished their strength.
+
+=68.= The conquerors of Cumæ and Capua adopted the luxurious habits of
+the Greeks and Etruscans, whom they had supplanted, but with whom they
+continued to live on friendly terms. The Greek-loving inhabitants of the
+coast dreaded their rude countrymen of the hills, almost as much as did
+the refined Hellenes themselves, and thus a great division took place in
+the Samnite stock. The civilized and Hellenized Samnites besought the
+aid of the Romans against the predatory hordes of their own race, who
+were constantly swooping down from the Samnian hills to ravage their
+fields. The Romans consented, on condition of their own supremacy being
+acknowledged throughout Campania, and their former treaty with Samnium
+was broken.
+
+=69.= The First Samnite War began with the march of two Roman armies
+into Campania, while the Latin allies invaded the Pelignian country on
+the north. The Roman armies were victorious, and both consuls obtained
+a triumph. A large force was left, at the request of the Campanians, to
+guard their cities during the winter. The common soldiers were still
+burdened with poverty, and the prolonged absence from their farms
+occasioned serious suffering to their families.
+
+In the second year of the war, mutinous plots were discovered, and a
+large body of the troops were sent home. On their way they released all
+the bondmen for debt whom they found working in the fields of their
+creditors, fortified a regular camp on the slope of the Alban Hills, and
+were joined by a large body of oppressed common people from the city.
+But when they met the army hastily raised by the patricians, and sent
+forth under Valerius the dictator—whose family had always been faithful
+friends to the people, and who was himself greatly beloved by all classes
+for his generous character, no less than his military glory—these men,
+whose revolt had been occasioned by real distress, and not by defect of
+loyalty, could not bring themselves to fight their fellow-citizens and
+the defenders of their common country. The two armies stood facing each
+other, until remorse on one side and pity on the other had overcome all
+mutual resentment; then, both pressing forward, they grasped hands or
+rushed into each others’ arms with tears and demands for pardon. The just
+requirements of the soldiers were granted by the Senate, together with
+amnesty for their irregular proceedings, and this singular rebellion
+ended in a lasting peace.
+
+=70.= The Latins, meanwhile, had been left to carry on the Samnite war by
+themselves, and their repeated successes encouraged them to assert their
+independence of Rome. The Romans now (B. C. 341) made peace with the
+Samnites, and, two years later, turned their arms against the Latins, who
+were strengthened by alliance with their late opponents, the Campanians
+and Volscians. The two consuls with their forces moved into Campania, and
+encamped in the plain of Capua, opposite the army of the three allies.
+Strict orders were issued against skirmishing or personal encounters, and
+disobedience was to be punished with death. Ignorant or heedless of the
+command, Titus Manlius, the consul’s son, accepted a challenge from a
+Latin warrior, killed his opponent, and brought the spoils in triumph to
+lay at his father’s feet. The consul turned away his face, and summoning
+his guards, ordered them to behead the young man before his tent, in the
+presence of all the soldiers. Roman discipline knew no ties of affection.
+Manlius, the father, was forever regarded with horror, but Manlius, the
+consul and general, was strictly obeyed as long as he commanded the
+armies of Rome.
+
+=71.= The decisive battle in the Latin war took place at the foot of
+Vesuvius. The augurs, having taken the auspices as usual, declared that
+fate demanded the sacrifice of a general on one side and an army on the
+other. It was therefore made known to the Roman officers that, whichever
+portion of the army should begin to yield, the consul commanding in that
+quarter would devote himself to the gods of death and the grave, in order
+that the army which must perish might be that of the Latins.
+
+Manlius led the Roman right; Publius Decius, the people’s consul, the
+left. The battle was severe, and bravely fought on both sides; but, at
+length, the Latin right wing prevailed, and the Roman left began to
+give way. Decius instantly called the chief pontiff—for, as a plebeian,
+he himself was ignorant of the ceremonies by which the gods must be
+addressed—and bade him dictate the form of words in which he was to
+devote himself to death. By the direction of the pontiff, he wrapped
+his toga around his face, set his feet upon a javelin, and repeated the
+imprecation.[68] Then sending his guard of lictors to the other consul
+to announce his fate, he mounted his horse, plunged into the host of the
+enemy, and was quickly slain. The Latins saw and understood the act,
+but they still fought fiercely, like men who struggled against fate. So
+equally matched were the main forces, that Manlius gained the day at last
+only by bringing on the poorer supernumeraries, whom he had armed to
+constitute a double reserve.
+
+=72.= A second battle was much more easily won, and the Latins had no
+strength to rally for a third. The Latin League was wholly broken up,
+Roman law every-where took the place of local constitutions, and some
+cities even became Roman colonies. The Latins were one in race and
+language with Rome, and their transient hostility was exchanged for
+a close and permanent alliance. The battle under Mount Vesuvius was
+one of the most important in the history of Rome, for by securing the
+sovereignty of Latium, it opened the way to the conquest of the world.
+
+=73.= For the next twelve years the Romans were unable to undertake any
+great foreign war. Italy was invaded by Alexander of Epirus, uncle of the
+great Macedonian conqueror, B. C. 332. His quarrel was with the Samnites,
+but if his success had been equal to his ambition, no engagements with
+the Romans would have prevented his overrunning the whole peninsula. He
+was defeated and slain, however, in 326 B. C., and the Romans immediately
+prepared for a renewed contest with the Samnites, which was to last
+twenty-two years, B. C. 326-304. The two chief states of Italy fought for
+sovereignty, and their allies included almost all the other nations in
+the peninsula.
+
+The events of the first five years were too indecisive to be worth
+recording. The advantage was generally with the Romans, but the Samnite
+power was still unbroken, and was able, in 321 B. C., to inflict one
+of the most severe and disgraceful defeats that Roman arms had ever
+sustained. The combined forces of Rome, led by the two consuls, were
+entrapped in a mountain-pass between Naples and Ben´even´tum, known as
+the “Caudine Forks.” Half the soldiers fell in the fight which ensued;
+the rest surrendered, but were generously spared by Pontius, the Samnite
+general, on condition of an honorable peace being signed by the two
+consuls and by two tribunes of the people, who were present with the
+troops. The soldiers were then made to “pass under the yoke,”[69] in
+token of surrender, and were permitted to march away, without their
+arms, toward Rome. But the Senate, having got back its forces, refused
+to be bound by the agreement of the consuls. The signers of the treaty,
+stripped and bound, were given up to the vengeance of the Samnites, but
+Pontius refused to receive them. He did not choose to punish the innocent
+for the guilty, nor to justify the Roman government in taking all the
+advantage of the agreement, and refusing all the sacrifices.
+
+=74.= The war went on six years without any very important event,
+until, in 315 B. C., the Samnites gained another great success at
+Lau´tulæ. Almost all the allies of Rome now deserted what seemed the
+losing cause. Campania revolted; the Ausonians and Volscians joined the
+Samnite alliance. But, in the following year, a still more severe and
+decisive battle gave victory to the Romans. The Samnites were crushed
+beyond all power of recovery. The war was continued, however, ten years
+longer, chiefly by the efforts of the Etruscans, Oscans, and Umbrians,
+to preserve the balance of power in Italy. But these efforts were never
+united, and the Romans were able to defeat them, one by one, until, in
+304 B. C., the Samnites became subject to Rome, and all the other parties
+concluded a peace. Rome was now, without question, the first nation
+in Italy; and, considering the disputes which weakened the fragments
+of Alexander’s empire, might almost be considered the greatest in the
+world. In intellectual culture, the Romans were still inferior to the
+conquered Samnites. Pontius, the Samnite general, was well versed in
+Greek philosophy, and in the elevation of his character far surpassed the
+proudest Romans of his time.
+
+=75.= Near the close of the Second Samnite War, the Æqui, who had been
+for eighty years in a state of neutrality, took up arms against Rome; and
+immediately after the treaty of B. C. 304, the consuls marched 40,000 men
+into their territory. A sharp and severe struggle of fifty days resulted
+in the capture and destruction of forty-one towns. A large portion of
+the people were sold into slavery, and the rest became subjects of Rome.
+A few years later, however, they received the rights of citizens, were
+enrolled in the tribes, and served in the wars against the Samnites.
+
+=76.= The latter people busily employed the six years’ interval
+between their second and third great struggle with Rome, in forming
+and strengthening the “Italian League.” Etruscans, Umbrians, and
+Gauls, on the north, were allied with Lucanians, Apulians, most of the
+Greek cities, and the Samnites, on the south. Rome had the advantage
+in compactness, numbers, and wealth; her own or her allies’ territory
+extended across Italy from the Mediterranean to the Adriatic, and divided
+the states of her enemies.
+
+The war broke out in 298 B. C., but no important movement was made until,
+in 295 B. C., the combined armies of the four northern nations advanced
+toward Rome. The plan of the consuls was at once bold and sagacious. One
+army awaited the invaders, while another marched directly into Etruria.
+This movement exposed the weakness of the league, for the Etruscans
+and Umbrians, deserting their allies, drew off to defend their own
+territories. The Samnites and Gauls crossed the Apennines to Senti´num,
+where they were overtaken by the first Roman army. In the battle which
+followed, the Gallic war-chariots had nearly driven from the field the
+legions of Decius, the consul, when, remembering the example of his
+father at Vesuvius, he, likewise, devoted himself to the powers of death
+for the deliverance of Rome. The legions were at length triumphant;
+25,000 of the enemy lay dead upon the field.
+
+=77.= The Gauls now withdrew from the league, but the Samnites continued
+the war with unabated resolution. Twenty-eight years after his great
+victory at the Caudine Forks, Pontius again defeated a Roman army under
+Fabius Gur´ges. The Romans were so exasperated by this defeat where they
+were confident of victory, that they would have deprived the consul of
+his command, had not his old father, Fabius Maximus, offered to serve as
+his lieutenant.
+
+A great victory was now gained, in which Pontius was captured, and
+made to walk, loaded with chains, in the triumph of the consul. When
+the procession reached the ascent to the Capitol, he was led aside and
+beheaded in the Mamertine prison—he who, thirty years before, had spared
+the lives and liberty of two Roman armies, and even generously released
+the officers when given over to his vengeance! This base treatment of a
+brave foe has been called the greatest stain in the Roman annals. The
+war was ended with the complete submission of Samnium, and the Romans
+established a colony of 20,000 people at Venu´sia, to hold the conquered
+territory in awe, B. C. 290.
+
+=78.= In the same year, the consul, Curius Denta´tus, began and ended
+another war against the Sabines, who had come to the aid of their Samnite
+kinsmen. They were subdued, and their extensive country, rich in oil,
+wine, and forests of oak, fell into the possession of the Romans. The
+commons at Rome suffered greatly, nevertheless, from the burdens of the
+war. Their farms had been neglected during their absence with the army,
+and those who had the misfortune to have been taken prisoners, had to be
+ransomed at a cost ruinous to small fortunes.
+
+Curius, the conqueror of the Sabines, proposed a new Agrarian law for the
+division of their lands among the poor of Rome. A political contest of
+several years ensued, during which the mass of the people seceded again
+to the Janiculum. A rumor of foreign invasion induced the Senate to yield
+and appoint Hortensius, a plebeian of ancient family, to be dictator. By
+his wise and conciliatory counsels, peace was restored. He convened all
+the people in a grove of oaks without the walls, and by the solemn oaths
+of the whole assembly passed the Hortensian laws, which ended the civil
+strife of Rome for 150 years. Every citizen received an allotment of
+land, and certain invidious marks of distinction between patricians and
+plebeians were effaced, B. C. 286.
+
+
+RECAPITULATION.
+
+    The Hellenized Samnites ask the aid of Rome against their
+    highland countrymen. The First Samnite War, B. C. 343-341,
+    opens with success to the Romans. Sedition of troops in
+    Campania. The Latins revolt against Rome and join the
+    Campanians and Volscians. The Romans make peace and alliance
+    with the Samnites for the Latin War, B. C. 340-338. In the
+    battle of Vesuvius, Decius, the consul, devotes himself
+    to death, and the Romans are victorious. The Latin League
+    suppressed, and the supremacy of Rome established. An invasion
+    of Italy by Alexander of Epirus, is followed by the Second
+    Samnite War, B. C. 326-304. The Romans defeated at the
+    Caudine Forks, B. C. 321, but at last completely victorious.
+    They conquer the Æqui, B. C. 304. Third Samnite War, and
+    Italian League against Rome, B. C. 298-290. Great victory
+    at Sentinum over Gauls, Samnites, Etruscans, and Umbrians.
+    Capture of Pontius, B. C. 292, and end of the Samnite wars.
+    Sabine territories conquered and divided among the people, by
+    Hortensian laws.
+
+
+WAR WITH PYRRHUS.
+
+=79.= Within three years (B. C. 283), the Romans were menaced by a new
+danger, in a powerful coalition formed by the Tarentines, and including
+nearly all the nations of Italy. The storm gathered swiftly and burst
+from all quarters at once. In the south, the Samnites, Lucanians, and
+Bruttians were in arms; in the north, the Etruscans and Umbrians, with
+hordes of Gallic mercenaries, were pouring into the field. Arre´tium
+alone stood firmly by the Roman alliance, and was besieged by an army
+of Etruscans and Gauls. The consul, Metel´lus, marching to its relief,
+was defeated with the total loss of his army. Embassadors, sent to
+remonstrate with the Seno´nian Gauls for the infringement of their treaty
+with Rome, were murdered, and their bodies hewed to pieces and cast
+out without burial. This outrage, which the laws of the rudest savages
+pronounced sacrilege, provoked a speedy vengeance. Dolabel´la, the
+consul, marched into the Gallic territory with his army, killed every man
+who was found, carried off the women and children as slaves, and reduced
+every village to a heap of ashes and rubbish.
+
+=80.= The Boian Gauls took up arms to avenge their brethren, and, joining
+the Etruscans, met the Roman forces in the valley of the Tiber, near
+the little lake Vad´imon. They were defeated so thoroughly that very
+few escaped from the field. The consul Fabric´ius, the following year,
+defeated the Samnites, Lucanians, and Bruttians in several great battles,
+broke up the coalition in the south, and collected an amount of spoils
+which enabled him to pay all the war expenses of the year, and, beside
+allowing a liberal share to every soldier, to leave half a million of
+dollars in the treasury. Tarentum, the prime mover of the war, had never
+drawn a sword, but had left all its burdens and losses to her allies. To
+punish this passive but mischievous policy, a Roman fleet was now sent to
+cruise around the eastern and southern coasts of Italy. It was defeated
+and sunk by the Tarentines in their own harbor. They then seized Thurii,
+expelled the Roman garrison, and, in the name of all the Italian Greeks,
+sent to Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, for aid.
+
+=81.= This accomplished and ambitious prince was glad of a new field of
+enterprise. He hastened into Italy with a well-appointed army of 25,500
+men, drilled and equipped in the Macedonian fashion, and supplied with
+twenty elephants. The gay and self-indulgent Tarentines, quite willing
+that another should fight their battles for them, forgot their promises
+of service and subsidies; but Pyrrhus showed them that he was master
+by stopping the sports of the circus and theaters, and the banquets of
+the clubs, and keeping the citizens under arms from morning to night.
+Even with inferior forces he was able to defeat the Roman legions at
+Heracle´a, on the Siris. Seven times the Epirotes and Greeks were driven
+from the field, and seven times regained it; but when the last Italian
+reserve was engaged, Pyrrhus brought on his elephants, till then unknown
+in Italy, and they put to flight the Roman horse. The rout was complete;
+the Romans did not stay to defend their camp, but fled to Venu´sia,
+leaving Pyrrhus master of the field.
+
+=82.= He was now joined by many allies, some of whom had even been
+subjects or friends of Rome; but the advantage of his victory was not
+sufficient to balance his loss in officers and men—losses the more
+serious as Greece was now overrun by the Gauls, and there was little hope
+of recruits. In these circumstances, Pyrrhus sent to Rome his embassador,
+Cin´eas, an orator of such brilliant talent, that he was said to have won
+more cities by his tongue than Pyrrhus by his sword. A large party was
+inclined to listen to his proposals of “peace, friendship, and alliance.”
+But Appius Claudius—thirty years ago censor, now a blind old man—heard in
+his house that Rome was making peace, with a victorious enemy still upon
+Italian soil. He caused himself to be carried in a litter through the
+Forum to the Senate-house. When he arrived, all his sons and sons-in-law
+went out to meet him and lead him to his ancient place. All the Senate
+listened in breathless silence as the old man rose to speak, protesting
+against the dishonor of his country. When he ceased, it was voted that
+no peace should be made while any foreign foe was in Italy, and that the
+orator who had so nearly persuaded them should leave the city that very
+day.
+
+=83.= The war went on between the consummate genius of Pyrrhus and the
+unconquerable will of the Roman people. They were fighting for existence,
+while Pyrrhus fought for glory; and though in every pitched battle he was
+victorious, fresh armies were always ready to oppose him. Still hoping
+to make peace with Rome, he refused to ransom or exchange the multitude
+of prisoners whom he had taken, but he allowed them all to return to
+Rome for the winter holidays—the Saturna´lia—on their simple promise to
+return if the Senate refused a treaty. The Senate refused, and every
+man returned. In his second campaign, Pyrrhus gained another brilliant
+victory, at As´culum, over the Romans and their allies. But his restless
+ambition now turned to a new field, and he departed into Sicily, where
+the Greek cities had implored his aid against the Carthaginians. Once
+master of that fertile island, he believed that he could attempt the
+conquest of Italy with better resources, and he left troops to hold
+Tarentum and Locri for his base of future operations in the peninsula.
+
+=84.= In Sicily his genius and valor for a time drove all before him. The
+strong town of Eryx was taken, Pyrrhus himself being the first to mount
+the scaling-ladders. The Carthaginians implored peace, offering ships and
+money as the conditions of an alliance. Pyrrhus haughtily refused; but a
+reverse which he afterward suffered at Lilybæ´um, encouraged his enemies
+and alienated his allies. After two years he returned into Italy, pursued
+by a Carthaginian fleet, which defeated him with a loss of seventy ships.
+On landing, he was met by a body of Mamertines,[70] who had crossed the
+straits from Sicily, and whom he defeated only by a sharp and costly
+battle. He arrived at Tarentum with an army equal in numbers, but far
+inferior in character, to that with which he had come from Epirus four
+years earlier. His faithful Epirotes were slain, and in their places were
+ill-trained Italian mercenaries, who would serve only as long as pay and
+plunder abounded.
+
+=85.= Being in great want of money to satisfy these unruly followers,
+Pyrrhus yielded to the advice of his Epicure´an courtiers, and
+appropriated the treasures of the temple of Proser´pina, at Locri.
+The money was embarked by sea for Tarentum, but a storm drove the
+sacrilegious vessel back upon the coasts of Locri; and Pyrrhus was so
+affected by remorse, that he restored the gold and put to death the
+counselors. He believed that he was ever after haunted by the wrath of
+Proserpina, which dragged him down to ruin. The following year he was
+totally defeated near Beneventum, by Curius Dentatus, the consul. Toward
+the end of the year he passed over into Greece, still leaving a garrison
+at Tarentum, in token of his unconquered resolution to return.
+
+During the first invasion by Pyrrhus, the Eighth Legion, stationed at
+Rhegium, and composed chiefly of Campanian mercenaries, had, like the
+Mamertines in Sicily, thrown off their allegiance, slaughtered the Greek
+inhabitants, and held the town as an independent military post. They
+were now reduced, and most of the garrison put to the sword; the rest,
+consisting of the original soldiers of the legion, were tried at Rome,
+scourged, and beheaded.
+
+=86.= Roman supremacy was now speedily established both in northern and
+southern Italy. Picenum was conquered, and half her inhabitants were
+forcibly removed to the shores of the Gulf of Salerno. Umbria submitted
+B. C. 266, the chief cities of Etruria followed, and the entire peninsula
+south of the Macra and Rubicon became subject to Rome. Hitherto the
+Romans, like the Spartans, had prided themselves upon the homeliness of
+their manners. When the Samnites sent envoys to M. Curius to bespeak his
+kind offices with the Senate, and offer him a present of gold, they found
+the ex-consul seated by his fire and roasting turnips in the ashes, with
+a wooden platter before him. To their proffered gift he replied, “I count
+it my glory not to possess gold myself, but to have power over those who
+do.”
+
+The eleven years following the departure of Pyrrhus were a period of the
+greatest prosperity ever enjoyed by the common people of Rome, and the
+wealth arising from the conquest of Italy materially changed their manner
+of living. Every freeman received a fresh grant of seven _jugera_ of land
+or a portion of money. The property of the displaced governments went,
+of course, to the Roman state, and thus valuable possessions of mines,
+quarries, forests, fisheries, and public lands were added to its domains.
+The administration of the public revenues demanded a greatly increased
+number of officials, and the rich, as well as the poor, profited by the
+results of war.
+
+=87.= The new territories were secured by that system of colonies which,
+in later times, served to establish the Roman power from the Atlantic to
+the Euphrates. The colonies were of two kinds. Most favored were those
+composed of “Roman citizens,” who retained all their rights as such,
+voting in the assembly, and being eligible to any office which they could
+have filled if remaining at Rome. Those who joined a “Latin colony,” on
+the other hand, lost their civil rights in Rome, but they had privileges
+which attached them both by interest and affection to the mother city.
+Ostia, and the maritime colonies generally, were of the former and higher
+class. The great system of Roman roads, which ultimately intersected all
+western Europe, and may be seen to-day in their massive remains, owed
+its origin to Appius Claudius “the Blind,” who when censor, in 312 B.
+C., constructed the Appian Way to connect Rome with her new dependency,
+Campania. He also built the first of the Roman aqueducts, to supply the
+poorer portion of the city with water.
+
+=88.= The free-born plebeians of Rome now possessed half the high offices
+in the state, and even in the sacred colleges of pontiffs and augurs.
+They were admitted to the Senate when they had served as consuls, or had
+been appointed to be either prætors or ædiles. Appius Claudius, in his
+censorship, went still further, and placed upon the rolls of the Senate
+the names of some who had been born slaves, or who possessed no lands.
+He enrolled these two very numerous classes in the tribes as voters;
+and instead of assigning them to those of the city, where they almost
+exclusively belonged, he distributed them over all the districts, so that
+they might control all elections. To rescue Rome from the inevitable rule
+of the mob, his successors in the censorship confined these new votes
+to the city, thus giving them the control only of four tribes out of
+thirty-one, and so the danger was averted.
+
+
+RECAPITULATION.
+
+    Coalitions in the north and south against the Romans. Siege of
+    Arretium, and defeat of Metellus. War with the Senonian and
+    Boian Gauls. Victories of Fabricius in the south. Pyrrhus comes
+    to the aid of the Tarentines; defeats the Romans at Heraclea,
+    Asculum, etc.; sends Cineas to Rome, whose persuasions are
+    thwarted by Appius Claudius the Blind; passes into Sicily, and
+    after two years returns to Epirus. All Italy subject to Rome.
+    Increased wealth and luxury of the people. Many new colonies
+    upon the conquered lands. Roads and aqueducts are constructed.
+    Freedmen and non-possessors of land admitted to the suffrage by
+    Appius Claudius.
+
+
+THIRD PERIOD, B. C. 264-133.
+
+=89.= The great commercial Republic of Carthage, though allied with Rome
+during the wars with Pyrrhus, had regarded with jealousy the steadily
+increasing power of the Italian state. The Roman people, on the other
+hand, had been so enriched by their recent wars, that they were eager
+for fresh plunder and a new allotment of conquered lands. A slight and
+doubtful pretext was, therefore, sufficient to plunge the two nations
+into war. The Carthaginians had seized the citadel of Messana, under
+pretense of aiding the Mamertines against Hi´ero of Syracuse. The Romans
+had recently punished the buccaneers of Rhegium for precisely the same
+crime which the “Sons of Mara” had committed at Messana, but when the
+latter sought their aid against both Syracusans and Carthaginians, the
+temptation was too great; they accepted the disreputable alliance, and
+invaded Sicily with 20,000 men.
+
+=90.= Having gained possession of Messana, they kept it for their own.
+The combined forces of Syracuse and Carthage, besieging the place, were
+defeated by Claudius, the consul; and Hiero, being distrustful of his
+African allies, returned home. The next year he made peace with the
+Romans, and continued until his death, nearly half a century later, their
+faithful friend and ally. Most of the Greek cities in Sicily followed his
+example. Hannibal,[71] son of Gisco, the Carthaginian general, could no
+longer meet the Romans in the field, but shut himself up in Agrigentum
+and was besieged. Hanno, attempting to relieve him, was decisively
+defeated; the city was taken, and its people were sold as slaves.
+
+Hannibal, who escaped to Panor´mus (Palermo) with most of his troops,
+now carried the war upon the sea, and ravaged the defenseless coasts
+of Italy with a fleet of sixty vessels. The next year his lieutenant,
+Boö´des, with a naval detachment, met the consul, Scipio, at Lip´ara,
+and captured his whole squadron. Hannibal then set out with fifty ships
+to ravage the coasts of Italy again. But the Romans, wisely learning
+from their enemies, were now prepared to meet them on their own element.
+A Carthaginian quin´quereme (a vessel with five rows of oars) had been
+cast ashore on the coast of Bruttium. It was used as a model, and the
+Romans, who previously had had nothing greater than triremes, possessed,
+within two months, one hundred first-class war vessels. While the
+ships were building, the crews were trained on shore to their peculiar
+and complicated motions. In the very first encounter, Hannibal was
+defeated; in the second, off Mylæ, he lost fifty vessels, among them his
+magnificent flag-ship, which had formerly belonged to Pyrrhus.
+
+=91.= In 259 B. C., Sardinia and Corsica were attacked, and the town of
+Ale´ria taken by the Romans. The following year, another great naval
+victory was gained off Ec´nomus, in Sicily; and the consuls, Manlius and
+Regulus, invaded Africa. They captured and fortified the town of Cly´pea,
+which they made their headquarters, and then proceeded to lay waste
+the lands of Carthage with fire and sword. The beautiful villas of the
+nobles and merchants afforded inestimable spoils; and 20,000 persons,
+many of whom were of exalted rank, and accustomed to all the refinements
+of wealth, were dragged away as slaves.
+
+In the winter, Manlius returned to Rome with half the army and all the
+plunder, while Regulus remained to prosecute the war. He defeated the
+Carthaginian generals, captured their camp, and overran the country at
+pleasure. More than three hundred walled villages or towns were taken.
+In vain the judges and nobles of Carthage cast their children into the
+brazen arms of Moloch, whence they rolled into the fiery furnace burning
+always before him. The hideous idol was not appeased, and the Roman
+general was equally implacable. To all embassies he refused peace, except
+on such intolerable terms that even disastrous war seemed better.
+
+=92.= At the darkest moment, relief arrived in the person of a Spartan
+general, Xanthippus, who came with a body of Greek mercenaries. His
+military fame and the evident wisdom of his counsels inspired such
+confidence, that he was put in the place of the incompetent Punic
+commanders. With his 4,000 Greeks, added to the Carthaginian infantry and
+100 elephants, he defeated and captured Regulus, and wholly destroyed the
+Roman army. A still more terrible disaster befell the fleet which had
+been sent to bring away the shattered remnants of the forces from Africa.
+A violent storm came on, and the southern coast of Sicily was strewn with
+the remains of 260 vessels and 100,000 men, B. C. 255.
+
+The Romans, though nearly driven to despair of the republic, never
+relaxed their exertions, but equipped a new fleet, with which, the
+following year, they captured the important town of Panormus. This
+fleet was wrecked, B. C. 253, and the next two years were full of
+discouragements; but, in 250 B. C., a brilliant victory, won at Panormus
+by the proconsul Metellus, tended to restore the balance of the opposing
+forces. A hundred elephants, taken alive, were exhibited in the triumph
+of Metellus.
+
+=93.= For the next eight years, the advantage was usually with the
+Carthaginians. Hamilcar Barca, the father of the great Hannibal, ravaged
+the coasts of Italy, and the Romans had no leader of equal genius to
+oppose to him. At last they rallied all their forces to put an end to the
+war. The wealthier citizens at their own expense fitted out a fleet of
+200 ships, and the consul Luta´tius gained a decisive victory among the
+islands west of Sicily. This reverse, following twenty-three years of
+exhausting war, so disheartened the Carthaginians, that they agreed to
+abandon Sicily and all the neighboring islands, to pay 2,000 talents, and
+release all the Roman prisoners without ransom.
+
+=94.= The First Punic War had lasted nearly twenty-four years, B. C.
+264-241 inclusive. Rome emerged from it a great naval power, able
+to meet on equal terms the well-trained mariners who had hitherto
+ruled the western Mediterranean. Foreseeing that the struggle must be
+renewed, both parties spent the twenty-three years which followed in
+strenuous preparations. Rome seized upon Sardinia and Corsica; and
+Carthage, absorbed and weakened by a revolt of her mercenary troops, was
+compelled to submit, and even to pay a heavy fine for having presumed to
+remonstrate.
+
+These islands, with Sicily, were placed under proconsular government,
+the system by which Rome afterward managed all her vast foreign
+possessions. The two consuls, on completing their year of office, divided
+the “provinces” between them by lot or agreement, and each held in his
+own, both military and civil control, while the finances were managed
+by quæstors responsible only to the Senate. When the provinces became
+numerous, the greater number were governed by pro-prætors. One-tenth
+of the whole produce of these conquered countries was claimed by Rome,
+beside a duty of five per cent on all imports and exports.
+
+=95.= By the request of the western Greeks, Rome exerted her new naval
+power in clearing the Adriatic of the Illyrian pirates, who were ravaging
+its coasts and destroying its commerce. Their queen, Teuta, seized the
+Roman embassadors who were first sent into her country, killed two and
+imprisoned the third. In the war which immediately followed, she lost the
+greater part of her dominions, and was compelled to keep her corsairs
+within stricter limits for the future, beside paying a yearly tribute to
+her conquerors. In gratitude for this important service, the Romans were
+admitted to equal rights with the Hellenic race in the Isthmian Games and
+the Eleusinian Mysteries, B. C. 228.
+
+=96.= While thus asserting her power in the Greek peninsula, Rome desired
+to extend her Italian dominion to its natural limit in the Alpine range.
+The Gauls were not slow in taking the alarm. Obtaining fresh forces
+from their kinsmen beyond the mountains, they advanced into central
+Italy, and, overrunning Etruria, threatened Rome again as in the days
+of Brennus. Three armies were quickly in the field to oppose them;
+and though one was routed, another, under the consul Æmil´ius, aided
+by Regulus,[72] who had unexpectedly arrived from Sardinia, gained a
+decisive victory which nearly destroyed the Gallic host. Within three
+years all Cisalpine Gaul submitted to Rome, B. C. 222. Mediola´num and
+Comum (Milan and Como), as well as Placen´tia, Parma, Mode´na, Man´tua,
+Vero´na, and Brix´ia, were occupied by Roman colonies, connected with
+the capital by the great military road called the Flaminian Way, and its
+continuations.
+
+=97.= Carthage, meanwhile, had yielded only from necessity, and for a
+time, to the superior power of Rome. A large majority of her citizens
+were for renewing the war at the earliest possible moment; and to recruit
+her power and wealth, Hamilcar had devoted all his energies to the
+conquest of the Spanish peninsula, B. C. 236-228. After his death, his
+son-in-law, Has´drubal, organized and developed the resources of the
+country by building towns, encouraging trade and tillage, training the
+native tribes into efficient soldiers, and working the newly discovered
+silver mines, which, beside paying all the expenses of the province, were
+rapidly filling up the home treasury. Rome, with her command of the sea,
+secured from fear of invasion, saw without uneasiness the prosperity of
+her rival. But an item which no one could have foreseen, the genius of
+Hannibal, was now to be added to the resources of Carthage.
+
+=98.= At nine years of age he had accompanied his father into Spain, and
+before the altar of his country’s gods had taken a solemn oath of eternal
+and unrelenting enmity to Rome. The oath of the child had not been
+forgotten by the youth. At the age of eighteen he fought by his father’s
+side in the battle where Hamilcar was slain; and during the following
+eight years of Hasdrubal’s administration, that general intrusted
+his young brother-in-law with the command of most of his military
+enterprises. Upon the death of Hasdrubal, the army by acclamation placed
+Hannibal at its head, and the government at home neither could nor would
+annul the appointment.
+
+Having confirmed his power in Spain by two years’ war against the native
+tribes, Hannibal deliberately sought the quarrel with Rome to which he
+had devoted his life. The Greek city of Saguntum had placed itself under
+the protection of Rome. It was attacked by Hannibal, and taken after an
+obstinate defense of eight months. The Romans sent to Carthage to demand
+the surrender of the young general for this breach of the treaty. The
+reply was a declaration of war.
+
+=99.= Leaving his brother Hasdrubal in charge of Spain, Hannibal prepared
+for a bolder movement than the Romans had foreseen. He knew that the
+great mountain-barrier of the Alps had already often been traversed by
+the Gauls, and he relied upon finding able guides among this people, who
+were mostly friendly to Carthage. He resolved, therefore, on the hitherto
+unprecedented feat of leading an army from Spain into Italy by land.
+Having offered, during the winter, solemn sacrifices and prayers for
+success, at the distant shrine of the Tyrian Hercules at Gades, he set
+forth from Carthagena, in the spring of 218 B. C., with an army of 90,000
+foot, 12,000 horse, and a considerable number of elephants. The Spanish
+tribes between the Ebro and the Pyrenees were yet to be overcome. They
+resisted bravely, but were subdued, and a force of 11,000 men was left to
+hold them in subjection.
+
+=100.= Having passed the Pyrenees, Hannibal advanced through friendly
+tribes of Gauls to the Rhone, which he crossed near the modern town of
+Orange, gaining an advance of three days upon the army of Scipio, the
+consul, who had intended to stop him. The passage of the Alps, with
+such a force, was one of the greatest military achievements of ancient
+times. The higher mountains were already obstructed by the snows of early
+autumn; hostile tribes contested his passage in narrow and dangerous
+defiles; and in two fierce battles, the army of Hannibal narrowly escaped
+total destruction. When, after fifteen days of toilsome and dangerous
+marching, he emerged into the plain of the Po, it was with scarcely
+more than one-fourth of the great army which had accompanied him from
+Carthagena.
+
+=101.= The Insubrian Gauls welcomed Hannibal as their deliverer from the
+hated power of Rome. After a short period of rest in their hospitable
+country, he sought Scipio, and totally routed his forces in a battle on
+the Tici´nus. By a still greater victory on the Tre´bia, over the forces
+of the two consuls (Dec., 218 B. C.), Hannibal became master of northern
+Italy. All the Gauls who had wavered now hastened to join his standard;
+but the gain from this quarter was balanced by the irreparable loss of
+his elephants, and the severe suffering of his African and Spanish troops
+from the unwonted coldness of the winter.
+
+In the spring of 217 B. C., he crossed the Apennines, and traversed the
+marshes of the Arno, a passage of tremendous difficulty, in which many
+of his beasts of burden perished. Again seeking battle, Hannibal passed
+the army of Flaminius at Arretium, and laid waste the country toward
+Peru´sia, thus provoking the consul to follow. When he had drawn the
+Roman army into a most perilous position, between precipitous cliffs and
+the Lake Thrasymene, he let loose his Gauls and Numidians to the attack.
+The defeat of the Romans was overwhelming: thousands were forced into the
+lake; thousands fell by the sword, among whom was Flaminius himself; and
+15,000 prisoners remained in the hands of the enemy.
+
+=102.= A panic seized Rome; the conqueror was instantly expected at
+her gates, and Fabius was elected dictator with unlimited powers. But
+Hannibal had sought to detach the Italian allies from Rome, by releasing
+without ransom all their prisoners whom he had taken. Wishing to give
+time for the disunion to take effect, he turned aside into Apulia, where
+he rested and recruited his troops worn by so many hardships.
+
+It was already proved in three battles that the Carthaginian was
+irresistible in the field. The policy of Fabius, therefore, was to avoid
+a general engagement, while he annoyed and weakened his enemy by cutting
+off his foraging parties, and otherwise harassing his march. In vain
+Hannibal crossed the Apennines into the rich Campanian fields, plundering
+and destroying the crops; he could neither capture a town nor entice
+Fabius into a battle. The latter fortified the Samnian mountain-passes,
+thinking to catch his enemy in a trap; but Hannibal eluded the snare and
+retired safe into Apulia, laden with abundant provision for the comfort
+of his winter-quarters.
+
+=103.= Great discontent was felt at Rome with the cautious policy of
+the dictator, and, in the spring of 216 B. C., an army of nearly 90,000
+men was led into Apulia by the two consuls Æmilius Paulus and Terentius
+Varro. They were met by Hannibal on the plain of the Aufidus, near the
+little town of Cannæ. The Carthaginians were inferior in numbers but
+superior in discipline, especially in the Numidian horsemen, who had
+always been victorious in an open field. Never had the Romans suffered so
+overwhelming a defeat. Their army was annihilated. From 40,000 to 50,000
+men lay dead upon the plain, among whom were Æmilius the consul, eighty
+senators, and the flower of Roman knighthood. Varro, the other consul,
+with a small but resolute band, made his way in good order from the
+battle-field; the rest of the survivors were either dispersed or taken
+prisoners.
+
+=104.= Southern Italy was now lost to Rome. Except the Roman colonies
+and the Greek cities held by Roman garrisons, all submitted to Hannibal.
+Capua opened her gates and became the winter-quarters of the African
+army. Philip of Macedon and Hieron´ymus of Syracuse made alliance with
+Carthage, and wars with these two powers divided the attention of the
+Romans. Still, beside keeping two armies in the foreign fields, they
+occupied every province of Italy with a separate force; and though too
+wise to meet Hannibal again in a general engagement, hemmed him in
+closely and cut off his supplies. The great general was now but faintly
+supported at home, and the ungenerous policy of Carthage probably
+deprived her of the conquest of Italy.
+
+=105.= Three years, therefore, passed with no decisive events. In 212
+B. C., Syracuse was taken by Marcellus after two years’ siege. The
+attacks of the Romans had been long foiled by the skill of Archimedes,
+the philosopher, who is said to have burnt their ships at the distance
+of a bow-shot from the walls, by means of a combination of mirrors which
+concentrated the sun’s rays. He constructed powerful engines, which, when
+attached to the walls, grappled the Roman ships and lifted them out of
+the water; and, in short, the brain of Archimedes was a better defense to
+Syracuse than the arms of all her soldiers. In the taking of the city,
+the philosopher was slain by some ignorant troopers; but Marcellus deeply
+regretted the event. He ordered him to be buried with high honors, and
+distinguished his family by many marks of friendship.
+
+=106.= Hannibal had been long anxiously awaiting the arrival of his
+brother from Spain; but the generalship of the two Scipios, Cneius and
+Publius, who conducted the war in that country, and more especially the
+brilliant genius of the son of the latter, afterward known as Africanus,
+had detained Hasdrubal and involved him in many disasters, even the loss
+of his capital, Carthagena. At last, in 208 B. C., Hasdrubal left Spain
+to the care of two other generals, and striking out a new path, as his
+brother’s route of eleven years before was now guarded by the Romans,
+he crossed the Pyrenees at their western extremity and plunged into the
+heart of Gaul. Many of the restless people flocked to his standard, and
+he “descended from the Alps like a rolling snow-ball, far greater than he
+came over the Pyrenees.”
+
+He found some of Hannibal’s roads uninjured; the mountaineers made no
+effort to dispute his passage, and he arrived in Italy before he was
+expected, so that no Roman army was ready to receive him. He might,
+perhaps, have settled once for all the supremacy of Carthage by marching
+directly on Rome, for the resources of the Republic, both in men and
+money, had been drained to the utmost, and another Thrasymene or Cannæ
+would have ended her existence.
+
+=107.= Hasdrubal lost time in the siege of Placentia, and his letter,
+describing to Hannibal his plan of operations, fell into the hands of
+Nero, the consul, who, by a rapid and secret march, joined his colleague
+at Sena with 7,000 men, leaving the main part of his army still facing
+Hannibal in the south. Hasdrubal was uninformed of the reinforcement of
+his enemy, but his quick ear caught one more trumpet-note than usual,
+at sunrise, in the Roman camp; and as he rode forth to reconnoiter, he
+discovered that the horses appeared over-driven, and the armor of the men
+stained. He therefore delayed until night-fall, and then moved to cross
+the river Metau´rus in search of a stronger position. But his guides
+betrayed him, and when morning dawned his worn and weary troops were
+still on the nearer side of the river, where they were soon overtaken
+by the foe. He made the best arrangement of his men which the crisis
+would admit, placing the ten elephants in front “like a line of moving
+fortresses,” his veteran Spanish infantry on the right, the Ligurians in
+the center, and the Gauls on the left.
+
+The battle was fiercely contested, for both armies felt that the decision
+of the day would be final, and that there was no hope for the vanquished.
+At last Nero, by a circuitous movement, fell upon the Spanish infantry,
+which had already borne the brunt of the fighting. Hasdrubal saw that
+the day was lost, and scorning to survive his men or to adorn a Roman
+triumph, he spurred his horse into the midst of a cohort, and died, sword
+in hand, B. C. 207.
+
+=108.= The consul Nero returned to his camp before Hannibal had even
+discovered his absence. Hasdrubal’s arrival in Italy, the battle and
+its result were first made known to the great general by seeing the
+ghastly head of his brother, which Nero had brutally ordered to be thrown
+within his lines. Hannibal read the tale of disaster in the terrible
+message, and groaned aloud that he recognized the fate of Carthage.
+Though he remained four years strongly posted in the mountain fastnesses
+of Bruttium, the issue of the war was already decided. In 204 B. C., the
+younger Scipio crossed into Africa, and the Carthaginians were compelled
+to recall Hannibal.
+
+The final battle was fought at Zama, B. C. 202. The great Carthaginian
+displayed again his perfect generalship, but he had no longer his
+invincible cavalry, and his elephants were rendered useless by the
+skillful tactics of Scipio. He was defeated with the loss of 20,000
+men slain, and an equal number of prisoners. The peace, concluded in
+the following year, took from Carthage all her possessions beyond the
+limits of Africa, and all the lands conquered from Numidia, whose king,
+Mas´sinis´sa, had rendered important aid to Scipio in the recent war. She
+surrendered, also, her fleet and elephants, promised a yearly tribute of
+200 talents, and engaged to make no war without permission from Rome.
+
+
+RECAPITULATION.
+
+    The First Punic War (B. C. 264-241) begins with the invasion
+    of Sicily by the Romans, who are joined by many Greek
+    cities, capture Messana and Agrigentum, equip a fleet upon
+    a Carthaginian model, and gain many naval victories. They
+    invade Africa, and ravage the lands of Carthage almost without
+    opposition; but Xanthippus arrives with auxiliaries, defeats
+    and captures Regulus. Five years of disaster to the Romans
+    are followed by the great victory of Metellus at Palermo; and
+    after eight years of again unsuccessful warfare, the victory of
+    Lutatius among the Ægates ends the contest. During the peace
+    which follows, Sardinia and Corsica are seized by the Romans,
+    and placed under proconsular government; the Illyrian pirates
+    are subdued, B. C. 229, 228; Cisalpine Gaul conquered, B. C.
+    225-222. The Second Punic War is begun, B. C. 218, by Hannibal.
+    He crosses the Pyrenees and Alps, defeats the Romans on the
+    Ticinus and the Trebia, and still more disastrously near the
+    Lake Thrasymene and at Cannæ. Syracuse, though defended by the
+    science of Archimedes, is captured by Marcellus. The three
+    Scipios make successful war in Spain. Hasdrubal comes at last
+    to the relief of his brother, but is defeated and slain on
+    the Metaurus, B. C. 207. Hannibal is recalled to Africa, and
+    finally defeated at Zama by Scipio Africanus, B. C. 202.
+
+
+EXTENSION OF ROMAN POWER.
+
+=109.= A triumph was awarded to Scipio, who was received at Rome with
+unbounded enthusiasm. The _Triumph_, which was the highest reward a
+Roman general could attain, may here be described once for all. The
+victorious chief waited without the walls until the Senate had decided
+upon his claim to the honor. Several conditions were to be observed: the
+victory must have been over foreign and not domestic foes; it must have
+been, not the recovery of something lost, but an actual extension of
+Roman territory; the war must be completed and the army withdrawn from
+the field, for the soldiers were entitled to a share in the triumph of
+their general. The honor was limited to persons of consular or, at least,
+prætorian rank; an officer of lower grade might receive an _ovation_, in
+which he entered the city on foot, but the chariot was a mark of kingly
+state which could only be permitted to the highest.
+
+=110.= If a triumph was decreed, a special vote of the people continued
+to the general his military command for the day within the walls, for
+without a suspension of the law, he must have laid it down on entering
+the gates. On the appointed day, he was met at the Triumphal Gate by the
+Senate and all the magistrates, in splendid apparel. Taking the lead of
+the procession, they were followed by a band of trumpeters, and a train
+of wagons laden with the spoils of the conquered countries, which were
+indicated by tablets inscribed in large letters with their names. Models
+in wood or ivory of the captured cities; pictures of mountains, rivers,
+or other natural features of the regions subdued; loads of gold, silver,
+precious stones, vases, statues, and whatever was most rich, curious, or
+admirable in the spoils of temples and palaces, made an important part
+of the display. Then came a band of flute players, preceding the white
+oxen destined for sacrifice, their horns gilded and adorned with wreaths
+of flowers and fillets of wool. Elephants and other strange animals from
+the conquered countries, were followed by a train of captive princes or
+leaders with their families, and a crowd of captives of inferior rank,
+loaded with fetters.
+
+Then came the twelve lictors of the imperator in single file, their
+fasces wreathed in laurel; and, lastly, the triumphant general himself,
+in his circular chariot drawn by four horses. His robes glistened with
+golden embroidery; he bore a scepter, and upon his head was a wreath of
+Delphic laurel. A slave standing behind him held a crown of Etruscan
+gold; he was instructed to whisper from time to time in his master’s ear,
+“Remember that thou art but a man.” Behind the general rode his sons and
+lieutenants, and then came the entire army, their spears adorned with
+laurels—who either sang hymns of praise, or amused themselves and the
+by-standers with coarse jokes and doggerel verses at their general’s
+expense. This rude license of speech was thought to neutralize the effect
+of overmuch flattery, which the Romans, like the modern Italians, were
+taught especially to dread. All the people, in gala dress, thronged the
+streets, and every temple and shrine were adorned with flowers.
+
+=111.= As a terrible contrast to the joy of the day, just as the
+procession had nearly finished its course to the Capitol, some of the
+captured chiefs were led aside and put to death. When their execution was
+announced, the sacrifices were offered in the temple of the Capitoline
+Jupiter; the laurel crown of the general was placed in the lap of the
+image; a magnificent banquet was served, and the “triumphator” was
+escorted home, late in the evening, by a crowd of citizens bearing
+torches and pipes. The state presented him a site for a house, and at
+the entrance to this triumphal mansion, a laurel-wreathed statue of its
+founder perpetuated the memory of his glory to his latest descendants.
+
+=112.= Carthage being stripped of her power and possessions, Rome became
+supreme in the western Mediterranean and the greater part of Spain. The
+confiscated lands of the Italian nations which had taken sides with
+Hannibal, afforded settlements for large bodies of veteran soldiers. The
+Cisalpine Gauls were still in revolt, under the lead of a Carthaginian
+general; but they were reduced by a ten years’ war (B. C. 201-191),
+and afterward became Latinized with that wonderful facility which
+distinguishes their race.
+
+=113.= The Alexandrine kingdoms in the East were all prematurely old
+and falling into decay. The campaigns of Flamininus against Philip of
+Macedon, B. C. 198, 197, have been already described. (See Book IV, §§
+81-83.) A new war for the protectorate of Greece was occasioned by the
+movements of Antiochus the Great. This ambitious and restless monarch not
+only welcomed to his court the now exiled Hannibal, but allied himself
+with the Ætolians and led an army to their aid. He had miscalculated
+the power of Rome, which met him promptly with much more than twice
+his numbers, defeated him once by land and twice by sea, and finally,
+in the great battle of Magnesia, in Lydia, shattered his forces, while
+beginning her own long career of Asiatic conquest. The lands conquered
+from Antiochus were divided between the friendly powers of Pergamus and
+Rhodes, and the example of their good fortune led many other nations to
+seek the Roman alliance.
+
+=114.= For more than twenty years, Rome was occupied with continual wars
+in the west, against the brave and freedom-loving tribes of Spain and
+the Ligurian Alps, as well as with the natives of Corsica and Sardinia.
+The latter island was conquered, B. C. 176, by Sempronius Gracchus, who
+brought away so great a multitude of captives, that “Sardinians for sale”
+became a proverbial phrase in Rome for anything cheap and worthless.
+
+Meanwhile, Philip V. had died in Macedon, and Perseus had succeeded to
+the throne. The final struggle of this prince with Rome, and its result
+in the battle of Pydna (B. C. 168), have been described in Book IV. Rome
+became for six centuries what Macedon had been only during one man’s
+short career, the undisputed ruler of the civilized world. None except
+barbarians any longer hoped to resist her ascendency; and but for a few
+revolts, like those of the Achæans, the Carthaginians, and the Jews, her
+progress in absorbing the old states of Asia, Africa, and Europe was both
+peaceful and rapid.
+
+=115.= After eighteen years of comparative tranquillity, it was resolved
+that the time had come for the complete extinction of Carthage. Cato,
+the censor, now eighty-four years of age, and the sternest of Roman
+legislators, declared that Rome could never be safe while her former
+rival was so near, so hostile, and so strong; and whenever he was
+called upon for his vote in the Senate, whatever might be the subject of
+debate, his unvarying reply was, “I vote that Carthage no longer be.” The
+doomed city had more than fulfilled every condition of the treaty which
+closed the First Punic War, and still made many sacrifices for the sake
+of peace. But the last command of Rome was not intended to be obeyed.
+The Carthaginians were ordered to destroy their city, and remove to a
+situation farther from the sea. They refused, and a war began, in which,
+for four years, the brave spirit of the people sustained them without the
+faintest hope of victory.
+
+=116.= Their fleet, their weapons, and their mines in Spain, Sardinia,
+and Elba had all been surrendered to the enemy. In two months 120 ships
+were built in the blockaded port, and a passage cut through the land
+to enable them to reach the sea. Public buildings were torn down to
+furnish timber and metal. Every living being toiled night and day at the
+defenses. An arsenal was established which daily produced 2,000 shields
+or weapons, and even the women contributed their long hair to make
+strings for the engines which hurled stones or arrows from the walls.
+
+At length the Romans, under the consul Scipio Æmilia´nus, forced their
+way into the city. The people defended it house by house, and street by
+street, and days of carnage were still required to quench the pride of
+Carthage in ashes and blood. The city was fired in all directions, and
+when, after seventeen days, the flames were at last extinguished, nothing
+remained but shapeless heaps of rubbish. The territories of the Punic
+state became the “Province of Africa,” whose capital was fixed at Utica.
+Roman traders flocked to the latter city, and took into their own hands
+the flourishing commerce of the coast.
+
+=117.= In the same year, B. C. 146, L. Mum´mius, the consul, plundered
+and destroyed Corinth. Its walls and houses were leveled with the ground,
+and a curse was pronounced on whomsoever should build on its desolate
+site. Its commerce passed to Argos and Delos, while the care of the
+Isthmian Games was intrusted to Sicyon. The policy of Rome toward the
+Greeks was far more liberal than toward any other conquered people. Her
+firm and settled government was, indeed, preferable to the dissension
+and misrule which disfigured the later ages of Greece; and the Greeks
+themselves declared, in the words of Themistocles, that “ruin had averted
+ruin.”
+
+=118.= The natives of western Spain, intrenched among their mountains,
+still maintained a brave resistance to the power of Rome. The
+Lusitanians, who had never yet been conquered, were basely deceived by
+Serto´rius Galba, who enticed 7,000 of them from their strongholds by
+promising grants of fertile lands; and when, trusting the word of a
+Roman general, they had descended into the plain, he caused them to be
+treacherously surrounded, disarmed, and either massacred or enslaved.
+
+Among the few who escaped was a youth named Viria´thus, who lived to
+become the leader and avenger of his people. The career of this guerrilla
+chief is full of stirring events. Issuing suddenly from a cleft in
+the mountains, he seven times defeated a Roman army with tremendous
+slaughter. In the last of these victories, the forces of Servilia´nus
+were entrapped in a narrow pass and completely surrounded. Absolute
+surrender was their only choice. Viriathus, however, preferring peace
+to vengeance, used his advantage with great moderation. He allowed his
+enemy to depart unhurt, on his solemn engagement to leave the Lusitanians
+henceforth unmolested in their own territories, and to recognize him,
+their chief, as a friend and ally of the Roman people.
+
+=119.= The terms were ratified by the Senate, but only to be violated.
+On the renewal of the war, Viriathus sent three of his most trusted
+friends to remonstrate, and offer renewed terms of peace. The consul
+bribed these messengers, by promises of large rewards, to murder their
+chief. The crime was committed, and within a year Lusita´nia (Portugal)
+was added to the Roman dominions. Numantia, in the north, still held out
+against the besieging army of Qu. Pompe´ius. A severe winter caused great
+sickness and suffering in the legions, and Pompey offered peace on terms
+favorable to the Spaniards, but, according to Roman ideas, disgraceful to
+the besiegers. These were accepted, and the last payment but one had been
+made by the Numantines, when Pompey’s successor in the consulship arrived
+at the camp. Being thus relieved from command, he denied that he had ever
+made the treaty, and persisted in his falsehood before the Senate.
+
+The war went on six years, with no credit and frequent disgrace to the
+Romans, until Scipio Æmilianus, the greatest general of his own time,
+starved the city at last into surrender. Many of the Numantines, rather
+than fall into the hands of an enemy whose perfidy they had too often
+proved, set fire to their houses and perished among the burning ruins.
+The whole peninsula, except its northern coast, was now subject to
+Rome. It was divided into three provinces—Hither and Farther Spain, and
+Lusitania—and became eventually the most prosperous and best governed
+part of the Roman foreign possessions. The Lusitanian mountains were
+still haunted by brigands, and isolated country houses in that region had
+to be built like fortresses; yet the country was rich in corn and cattle,
+and occupied by a thriving and industrious people.
+
+
+RECAPITULATION.
+
+    Rome, supreme in the western Mediterranean, makes war upon
+    Philip V., of Macedon, and Antiochus the Great, of Syria. The
+    battle of Magnesia, B. C. 190, lays the foundation of her power
+    in Asia, and the battle of Pydna makes her the head of the
+    civilized world. In the meanwhile, Sardinia is conquered, and
+    wars carried on in Spain and Liguria. The third and last Punic
+    War ends, B. C. 146, with the destruction of Carthage. The
+    same year, Corinth is destroyed by Mummius. Viriathus holds
+    out nine years in western Spain; he is assassinated B. C. 140;
+    Numantia is captured B. C. 133; and Spain divided into three
+    Roman provinces.
+
+
+FOURTH PERIOD, B. C. 133-30.
+
+=120.= The possessions of Rome now extended from the Atlantic to the
+Ægean, and from the Atlas Mountains to the Pyrenees and Alps. But changes
+in the relations of rich and poor, governing and governed classes, in
+her own capital, now withdrew her attention for a while from foreign
+conquests, and led to important civil controversies. The old strife
+between patricians and plebeians was long ago at an end. Many plebeian
+houses had become noble through their members having held high offices in
+the state; and they had their clientage, their share in the public lands,
+their seat in the Senate, and their right of displaying waxen images of
+their ancestors in their houses or in funeral processions, equally with
+the oldest burghers of all. Freedmen were constantly admitted to the
+franchise.
+
+=121.= The real cause of trouble was in the sufferings of the poor,
+who, since the formation of the last colony, in 177 B. C., had had no
+new allotment of lands. Rome was a “commonwealth of millionaires and
+beggars.” The Licinian laws (see § 64) were practically set aside. Many
+rich proprietors held four times the amount of public land to which they
+were entitled; and instead of employing the required proportion of free
+labor, preferred to cultivate by means of gangs of slaves. The foreign
+wars, which formerly so frightfully reduced[73] the numbers of the common
+people, had now ceased; the labor market became over-stocked, and a mass
+of paupers, hungry, helpless, and hopeless, began to threaten serious
+danger to the state. The multitude of slaves, chiefly taken in war, more
+or less trained for fighting, and conscious of their strength, were a not
+less dangerous class. The best and wisest of the Romans saw the danger,
+and sought means to avert it. But among those who most deeply deplored
+the miseries of the people, a large party believed that nothing could be
+done.
+
+=122.= In 133 B. C., the tribune Tiberius Gracchus, a son of the
+conqueror of Sardinia, and grandson of Scipio Africanus, brought forward
+a bill for reviving the provisions of the Licinian laws. The great amount
+of state lands which would thus become vacant, he proposed to divide
+among the poor; and to compensate the former occupants for their losses,
+by making them absolute owners of the 500 jugera of land which they
+could legally retain. This movement, apparently so just, was violently
+opposed. The leased lands had been, in some instances, three hundred
+years in the same family. Buildings had been erected at great expense,
+and the property had been held or transferred as if in real ownership.
+The strong influence of the wealthy class was therefore made to bear
+against the bill; and when it was brought before the popular assembly,
+Octa´vius, a colleague of Gracchus in the tribuneship, interposed his
+veto and prevented the vote from being taken. But Gracchus moved the
+people to depose Octavius, and so carried the bill. Three commissioners,
+Tiberius Gracchus himself, his brother Caius, and his father-in-law,
+Appius Claudius, were appointed to examine into the extent of the abuse,
+and enforce the Agrarian laws.
+
+=123.= Their task was difficult, and Tiberius had to content the people
+by continually bringing forward more and more popular measures. The
+kingdom of Pergamus, with its treasury, had just become the inheritance
+of the Romans. Gracchus proposed that the money should be distributed
+among the new land-holders, to provide implements and stock for their
+farms. Other proposals were for shortening the term of military
+service, for extending the privilege of jury to the common people,
+and for admitting the Italian allies to the rights of Roman citizens.
+The aristocratic party had declared from the beginning that this bold
+innovator should not escape their vengeance. His candidacy for a second
+tribuneship brought the opposition to a crisis. Tiberius was slain upon
+the steps of the Capitol, and his body thrown into the Tiber.
+
+=124.= Though the reformer was dead, his reform went on. The party in
+power earnestly desired to relieve the public danger and distress, and,
+by order of the Senate, the commission continued the distribution of
+lands. A law proposed by Scipio Æmilianus, B. C. 129, withdrew the work
+from the hands of the commissioners, and placed it permanently in those
+of the consuls. The lands which were really public property were by
+this time distributed, and questions had arisen concerning territories
+which had been granted to Italian allies. “The greatest general and the
+greatest statesman of his age,” Scipio saw as clearly and lamented as
+deeply as the Gracchi the needs of his country, and, with unselfishness
+equal to theirs, he sought to check the reform, when convinced that it
+had gone as far as justice would permit. But he, too, became a martyr
+to his efforts. Soon after the passage of his bill, and on the morning
+of the day appointed for his oration upon popular rights, he was found
+murdered in his bed.
+
+=125.= Caius Gracchus returned from his quæstorship in Sardinia, B. C.
+124, and became tribune of the people. His plans for relieving the poorer
+classes were more revolutionary than those of his brother, but many of
+them were most beneficent and widely reaching in their results. Colonies
+were formed, both in Italy and beyond the sea, to afford an outlet to the
+crowded and distressed population of Rome. Six thousand colonists were
+sent to the deserted site of Carthage; another company to Aquæ Sextiæ
+(Aix), in southern Gaul; and a third, with the full “Roman right,” to
+Narbo Martius (Narbonne´). The latter colony, though not founded until
+after the death of Caius, was equally a fruit of his policy. It was
+fostered by the commercial class, for the sake of its lucrative trade
+with Gaul and Britain.
+
+A less beneficent though doubtless needed law, provided for the
+distribution of grain from the public stores, at less than half price,
+to all residents in the city who chose to apply for it. An extensive
+range of buildings, the Sempronian granaries, were erected to supply
+this demand. The result was the crowding within the walls of Rome of the
+whole mass of poor and inefficient people from the surrounding country,
+thus giving to the popular leaders a majority in the assembly, and the
+absolute control of the elections; creating, at the same time, that lazy,
+hungry, and disorderly mob which for five hundred years constituted the
+chief danger of the imperial city.
+
+=126.= The lowest age for military service was fixed at seventeen years,
+and the cost of the soldier’s equipment, which formerly had been deducted
+from his wages, was now defrayed by the government. Having thus won
+the poorer people, Caius drew to his side the plebeian aristocracy, by
+placing in their hands the collection of revenues in the provinces, thus
+creating the class of great merchants and bankers, hitherto scarcely
+known in Rome. The new “province of Asia” had been formed from the
+kingdom of Pergamus, and its name, like that of “Africa” given to the
+Carthaginian territory, doubtless implied that its limits were not
+considered as fixed. In accordance with the despotic principle that
+conquered or inherited lands were the private property of the state, the
+province was now loaded with taxes, and the privilege of collection was
+publicly sold at Rome to the highest bidder. The “publicans” amassed
+great fortunes, but the unhappy provincials were reduced to extreme
+distress.
+
+=127.= Gracchus would have gone a step farther, and extended the full
+rights of Roman citizenship to all free Italians. But this liberal policy
+was equally hateful to the Senate and the commons. The former gained over
+his colleague, Liv´ius Drusus, who outbade Gracchus by proposing still
+more popular measures, which, however, were never meant to be fulfilled.
+Instead of two Italian colonies, composed only of citizens of good
+character, which had been planned by Gracchus, Drusus proposed twelve, to
+contain 3,000 settlers each. Caius had left the domain lands subject, as
+of old, to a yearly rent. Drusus abolished this, and left the lessees in
+absolute possession of their farms.
+
+At the end of the second year, Caius lost his tribuneship, and the new
+consuls were opposed to him. His policy was now violently attacked, and
+especially the formation of the transmarine colonies. It was reported
+that African hyenas had dug up the newly placed boundary stones of
+Juno´nia, the successor of Carthage; and the priests declared that the
+gods in this way signified their displeasure at the attempt to rebuild an
+accursed city. The auguries were taken anew; a popular tumult arose, in
+which an attendant of the priests was killed. The next day the Forum was
+occupied by an armed force, and all the aristocratic party appeared with
+swords and shields. Caius and his former colleague, Ful´vius Flaccus,
+retired with their followers to the Aventine, the old stronghold of the
+commons. The nobility, with their Cretan mercenaries, stormed the mount;
+250 persons of humble rank were slain, and the two leaders were pursued
+and put to death. Three thousand of their adherents were strangled in
+prison, by order of the Senate. Cornelia,[74] the mother of the Gracchi,
+was not permitted to wear mourning for the last and noblest of her sons;
+but the people honored their memory with statues, and on the sacred
+ground where they had fallen, sacrifices were offered as in temples of
+the gods.
+
+=128.= Next to Egypt, the most important client-state of Rome was
+Numidia, which occupied nearly the same space with the modern province
+of Algeria. Massinissa, the Numidian king, had been rewarded for his
+faithful service in the Second Punic War, by a grant of the greater part
+of the Carthaginian territories. Micip´sa, his son, was now a feeble old
+man, who cared more for Greek philosophy than for affairs of state, and
+had dropped the control of his kingdom into the hands of his nephew,
+Jugur´tha, whom he raised by adoption to a level with his own sons. In
+his will he divided the civil, military, and judicial offices of the
+kingdom between the three princes.
+
+After the old king’s death, his sons, Adher´bal and Hiemp´sal, disputed
+the will, while Jugurtha boldly claimed the supreme and sole authority.
+Hiempsal was murdered by hired ruffians. Adherbal appealed in person
+to the Roman Senate, which had undertaken to guarantee his father’s
+bequests. But Jugurtha had learned in the camps that every senator had
+his price; and his emissaries worked so skillfully, that the whole blame
+of the dispute and the murder was thrown upon the suppliant prince. A new
+division of the kingdom was ordered to be made, by Roman commissioners
+sent over for the purpose. Jugurtha received the fertile and populous
+region which was afterward known as Mauritania; Adherbal, with Cirta,
+the capital, had only a tract of sandy desert toward the east.
+
+=129.= Jugurtha, however, was not satisfied; and failing by many insults
+to provoke his cousin to war, he at last besieged him in his capital,
+and in spite of lame remonstrances from Rome, captured and put him to
+death with cruel tortures, and ordered an indiscriminate massacre of all
+the inhabitants of the town. Of these, many were Italians. Even the base
+venality of the Roman government could no longer withstand the righteous
+indignation of the people. War was declared and an army promptly sent
+forward, which received the submission of many Numidian towns. But again
+the wily usurper was able to buy peace with African gold. He pretended
+to submit at discretion, but was re-instated in his kingdom upon paying
+a moderate fine and surrendering his war elephants, which he was soon
+permitted to redeem. Public indignation again broke out at Rome. Jugurtha
+was summoned to the city, to answer concerning the means by which he had
+obtained the peace. His cousin, Massi´va, took this opportunity to prefer
+his own claim to the kingdom of Massinissa; but he was assassinated by
+a confidant of Jugurtha, who immediately, with the aid of his master,
+escaped from Rome.
+
+=130.= This new insult enraged the people beyond endurance. The Senate
+canceled the peace and dismissed Jugurtha from the city. His sarcastic
+remark in leaving expressed a melancholy truth: “If I had gold enough, I
+would buy the city itself.” The war was renewed, but the army, equally
+demoralized with its chiefs, was wholly unfit for service. In attempting
+to besiege the treasure-town of Suthul, the incompetent commander
+suffered himself to be drawn off into the desert, where his whole army
+was routed and made to pass under the yoke. By the terms of surrender,
+Numidia was evacuated and the canceled peace renewed. The generals whose
+misconduct had led to this disgrace were tried at Rome and exiled, and
+with them Opim´ius, the head of the Numidian commission, and the real
+executioner of Caius Gracchus.
+
+In token of the earnestness with which the war was now to be carried
+on, Qu. Metellus, a stern and upright patrician of the old school, was
+elected consul for the African campaign. Among his lieutenants was Caius
+Marius, the son of a Latin farmer, who had risen from the ranks by his
+sterling ability. He won the hearts of the soldiers by voluntarily
+sharing all their toils and privations; and through their reports to
+friends at home, his praise was in every mouth.
+
+=131.= The wild tribes of the desert flocked to the standard of Jugurtha,
+whom they hailed as their deliverer from Roman domination; and with his
+swarms of fleet horsemen, he was able either to dictate the battle-field,
+or to vanish out of sight at any moment, when the combat seemed to be
+going against him. The Romans gained one or two victories, but no real
+advantage. An impression, doubtless false and unjust, sprang up at Rome,
+that the inaction of Metellus, like the reverses of his predecessors, was
+owing to a secret understanding with Jugurtha—or, at least, that he was
+prolonging the war to gratify his own love of power.
+
+Availing himself of this prejudice, Marius returned to Rome, and was
+elected consul for the year 107 B. C. Instead of having his province
+allotted by the Senate, he was appointed by the people to the command
+in Africa. His election was really a revolution which gave power in the
+state to military talent, rather than to great wealth or noble birth.
+His quæstor in this expedition was L. Cornelius Sulla, a young nobleman
+distinguished chiefly hitherto by his unbounded licentiousness, but who,
+by energetic application to his duties, soon won the entire confidence
+and approbation of his commander. These two men stood, a few years later,
+in very different relations to each other, as alternate masters of the
+Roman world.
+
+=132.= In spite of some daring adventures and the capture of several
+towns, the administration of Marius was not much more successful than
+that of Metellus. He continued in command as proconsul for the year
+106 B. C.; and during the second winter, the real victory was gained
+by Sulla, who passed through the enemy’s camp at great personal risk,
+and with consummate skill conducted a negotiation with King Bocchus,
+of Mauritania, for the surrender of Jugurtha. This notorious criminal
+was brought in chains to Rome, where, with his two sons, he adorned the
+triumph of Marius, Jan. 1, B. C. 104. A few days later, he perished with
+hunger in the lower dungeon of the Mamertine prison. A new peril now
+threatened Rome, and demanded unusual measures. In spite of a law to the
+contrary, Marius was reëlected to the consulship, and continued to hold
+that office five successive years, B. C. 104-100.
+
+=133.= The Cimbri, a mingled horde of Celtic and Germanic tribes, had
+been dislodged in some unknown manner from their seats beyond the Danube,
+and were pressing upon the Roman frontier. Before the close of the
+Jugurthine War, they had four times defeated consular armies in Gaul
+and the Alpine regions. In the last of these defeats, at Orange, on the
+Rhone (B. C. 105), an army of 80,000 men had been destroyed, and all
+Italy was filled with terror. A new army was now on foot, and Marius,
+with his legate, Sulla, and many other able officers, hastened into
+Gaul. The Cimbri had turned aside into Spain, where, however, they met
+a brave resistance, and were soon driven back across the Pyrenees. In
+western Gaul nothing was able to resist their rapid course of conquest,
+until they arrived at the Belgian territory beyond the Seine. They were
+joined by a kindred tribe of Teuto´nes from the shores of the Baltic, and
+by three cantons of Helve´tii from the mountains of Switzerland. They
+now arranged a combined invasion of Italy, the Teutones to enter that
+country from Roman Gaul by the western passes of the Alps, while the
+Cimbri were to traverse the eastern passes from Switzerland.
+
+=134.= It was the object of the consuls to prevent their junction, and
+for this purpose Marius awaited the Teutones on the Rhone, near its
+confluence with the Is´ara, while Catulus marched into northern Italy to
+meet the Cimbri. One of the greatest victories ever won by Roman arms
+was gained by the former, near Aix, B. C. 102. Three successive days the
+barbarians had assaulted the Roman camp, when, despairing of success,
+they resolved to leave it behind and continue their march into Italy.
+
+Distrusting his new recruits, Marius would not suffer his men to be drawn
+from their intrenchments until the entire host had departed; and so
+great were the numbers, and so cumbrous the baggage of the barbarians,
+that they were six days in passing the Roman works. When they were gone,
+Marius broke up his camp and started in pursuit, still maintaining
+perfect order, and intrenching himself carefully every night. In the
+neighborhood of Aix he overtook the Teutones, and the pitched battle
+which was then fought ended in the complete destruction of the nation.
+The warriors who survived the combat put an end to their own lives; and
+their wives, preferring death to slavery, followed their example.
+
+=135.= Meanwhile, the other division, less ably resisted, had advanced
+through the Brenner Pass and routed the army of Catulus near Trent. But
+the comfort and plenty of the Lombard plain were, for the moment, a
+better protection to Rome than the wisdom of her generals. The Cimbri
+went into winter-quarters, and Marius had time to recruit his army and
+hasten to join his colleague in the spring of 101 B. C. When the Cimbri
+ascended the valley of the Po, hoping to effect the proposed junction
+with their Teutonic comrades, they met, instead, the combined armies of
+Marius and Lutatius. The battle was fought at Vercel´læ, westward of
+Milan, July 30, 101 B. C. The barbarians were wholly defeated, and either
+slaughtered or enslaved; 14,000 were left dead upon the battle-field, and
+60,000 were transferred to the slave-markets of Rome.
+
+=136.= Marius was received at Rome with a brilliant triumph, in which
+he was hailed as a third Romulus and a second Camillus, and his name in
+libations was coupled with those of the gods. The common people rejoiced
+scarcely more for the victory over the barbarians than for that over
+the government. The triumph of their chosen general, the farmer’s boy
+of Arpi´num, seemed to them a triumph of the untitled and unprivileged
+masses over the rich and favored few. Marius was elected to his sixth
+consulate, and if he had been as great a statesman as general, the
+Republic might even then have been exchanged for a monarchy. But he had
+no matured policy, and no skill in adapting means to ends. He allied
+himself with two unprincipled demagogues, Saturni´nus and Glau´cia, to
+secure his election, and then abandoned them to the vengeance of the
+Senate, when their crimes had become too bold for endurance.
+
+The government candidate for the consulship was assailed and beaten to
+death; and the party which procured the murder, proclaiming Saturninus
+its chief, broke open the prison doors and gave freedom and arms to both
+prisoners and slaves. This armed rabble fought the guards of Marius in
+the very market-place of the city; but it was driven at length to the
+Capitol, cut off from water, and forced to surrender. Without waiting the
+forms of trial, some young nobles climbed to the roof of the building
+where the rioters were imprisoned, tore off the tiles, and stoned them
+to death. In this disgraceful manner perished four high officers of the
+Roman people: a prætor, a quæstor, and two tribunes.
+
+=137.= The beautiful island of Sicily was a second time the scene of a
+servile war, B. C. 102-99. Its fertility and importance as a grain market
+to Rome had attracted speculators, who farmed their vast estates by
+means of multitudes of slaves. In the First Servile War (B. C. 134-132),
+200,000 rebels were in arms; the second taxed the best exertions of
+three successive consuls, and though it was ended, B. C. 99, in victory
+to Rome, the terror it had excited did not soon die away. The slaves
+not only outnumbered the ruling class, but surpassed it in strength,
+and even, in some rare instances, in military talent. They were treated
+with such inhuman cruelty, that they never lacked a motive for revolt,
+and thus the rural districts were always liable to outbreaks when the
+governing force was removed.
+
+The Roman slave-code, it may be hoped, has never been equaled in
+barbarity by that of any civilized state. The slave was “nothing” in
+law; his master might torture or kill him with no other punishment
+than the loss of his property; and when, after such a victory as that
+of Vercellæ, captives could be bought, as we are told, for less than a
+dollar a head, that motive could have had no weight against the passion
+of revenge. Happily, society is sometimes better than its laws. Household
+servants commonly enjoyed the confidence and affection of their masters;
+physicians and teachers were usually Greek slaves, and their learning and
+talents caused them to be respected in spite of the misfortune of their
+condition.
+
+
+RECAPITULATION.
+
+    Though plebeians enjoy political equality, the poor suffer
+    for want of land and employment. Tiberius Gracchus passes the
+    Agrarian laws, but becomes a martyr to his zeal for reform.
+    Scipio Æmilianus, trying to moderate the Agrarian movement,
+    is also murdered. Caius Gracchus founds colonies in Italy
+    and abroad; provides for the poor by a public distribution
+    of grain; gives to the rich plebeians the collection of
+    provincial revenues, and thus creates a class of great bankers
+    and publicans. He is opposed with armed violence and slain,
+    B. C. 121. The crimes of Jugurtha occasion the Numidian war,
+    B. C. 111-106. Metellus is succeeded in command by Marius,
+    who becomes consul, B. C. 107. Jugurtha is captured by the
+    address of Sulla; Marius defeats the Teutones in a great
+    battle near Aix, B. C. 102; and the Cimbri, the next year,
+    at Vercellæ. A sedition at Rome is followed by the death of
+    several magistrates. Sicily is twice devastated by servile
+    insurrections, B. C. 134-132, and B. C. 102-99.
+
+
+THE SOCIAL WAR.
+
+=138.= Meanwhile, Rome was shaken by the efforts and death of another
+reformer, M. Livius Drusus, son of the opponent of Gracchus. As a noble,
+he was filled with shame for the corruptions of his order, and sought
+to revive the safest and best of the laws of the Gracchi, by giving the
+franchise to all Italians, and by taking the judicial power from the
+knights, who had greatly abused it. He was murdered at his own door by
+an unknown assassin, B. C. 91, and both of his laws repealed. The allies
+in the south and center of Italy, disappointed in all their hopes by the
+death of their champion, now flew to arms. Eight nations, the Marsi,
+Marrucini, Peligni, Vestini, Picenti´ni, Samnites, Apu´li, and Lucani,
+formed a federal republic under the name of _Italia_, chose two consuls,
+and fixed their capital at Corfin´ium, in the Apennines.
+
+The first movements in the “Social War” were disastrous to Rome. L.
+Cæsar, the consul, Perper´na, his legate, and Postu´mius, a prætor,
+were defeated. A consular army under Cæpio was destroyed; Campania was
+overrun, and the northern Italians were almost ready to join the league.
+But a late concession saved Rome. The coveted rights of citizenship were
+conferred on all who had taken no part in the war, and on all who would
+now withdraw from it. The confederate ranks were thus divided; and, at
+length, even the Samnites and Lucanians, who were the last to submit,
+were won by a promise of all that they had asked.
+
+=139.= The slow and cautious conduct of Marius in this war had been
+eclipsed by the brilliant activity of Sulla, who was now consul; and the
+Senate, choosing to consider the old general unequal to the hardships
+of a campaign, conferred the command against Mithridates upon the young
+patrician officer. The jealousy which had long ago supplanted the
+ancient confidence between Marius and Sulla, now broke out into violent
+opposition. To defeat his rival, Marius persuaded Rufus, the tribune, to
+propose a law for distributing the newly enfranchised Italians among all
+the tribes. The old citizens would thus be greatly outnumbered, and the
+appointment of Sulla reversed, for all the new voters regarded Marius
+as their friend and benefactor. The consuls interfered, but Marius and
+his ally occupied the Forum with an armed force, compelled the consuls
+to withdraw their interdict, passed the law by intimidation, and easily
+obtained a vote of the tribes appointing Marius to the command of the
+Pontic War.
+
+[Illustration: MAP of the ROMAN EMPIRE.]
+
+=140.= This brutal interference with the forms of law was naturally
+met by an opposing force. The military tribunes sent by Marius to take
+command, in his name, of the army at Nola, were stoned to death by the
+soldiers of Sulla, who instantly marched upon Rome at the head of six
+legions. The city was unprepared for resistance; Sulla became its master,
+and Marius, with his son and partisans, fled. He wandered, a fugitive and
+outlaw, along the coast of southern Italy; now half starved in a wood,
+now buried all night to his chin in a swamp; again indebted for a few
+hours’ sleep to the charity of a ship-master or to a peasant, who refused
+the reward offered by Sulla for the head of the outlaw, and enabled him
+to elude his pursuers.
+
+At Mintur´næ he was sheltered by a woman to whom he had formerly rendered
+some kindness; but the officers of the town resolved to comply with the
+orders of the government at Rome, and with difficulty prevailed upon a
+Gallic or Cimbrian soldier to undertake the work of despatching him.
+But no sooner had the barbarian entered the room where the old general,
+unarmed and defenseless, lay upon a bed, than his courage failed, his
+drawn sword fell from his hand, and he rushed from the house, exclaiming,
+“I can not kill Caius Marius!”
+
+=141.= The people of Minturnæ now took more generous counsel, and
+resolved not to destroy the deliverer of Italy. They provided him with a
+ship, and conducted him with good wishes to the sea, where he embarked
+for Africa. Here, too, he was warned by the governor to leave the
+country, or be treated as an enemy of Rome. But a revolution had by this
+time taken place in Rome itself, which favored the return of Marius.
+Cinna, one of the new consuls, was of the Marian party, and wished to
+enforce the laws of Rufus. The aristocrats armed, under the command of
+the other consul, Octavius, and a battle was fought in the Forum, in
+which Cinna was defeated and expelled from the city. Like Sulla, he
+appealed to the army; and as the army was now composed of Italians, who
+could not but favor that party which promised them supreme power in the
+Roman elections, the tide was turned against the aristocrats.
+
+Marius returned, seized upon Ostia and other ports on the Latin coast,
+captured the corn ships, and thus starved Rome into surrender. This
+time the captured city was given up to a reign of terror. As Marius
+walked through the streets, his guards stabbed all persons whom he
+did not salute. Fresh lists were made out every day of those whom he
+either feared or hated, as victims for the dagger. Marius and Cinna
+declared themselves consuls for B. C. 86, in contempt of the usual form
+of election. But the unrelenting master of Rome did not long enjoy his
+seventh consulship, which he had all his life superstitiously expected,
+and now so unscrupulously obtained. He died on the eighteenth day of his
+magistracy, and in the seventy-first year of his age.
+
+=142.= Sulla had brought the Mithridatic War to a victorious conclusion,
+having conducted five difficult and costly campaigns at his own expense,
+and recovered for Rome the revolted territories of Greece, Macedonia, and
+Asia Minor. But he never forgot that the Republic which he was serving
+had declared him a public enemy, confiscated his wealth, and murdered his
+best friends for their adherence to him. If his vengeance was delayed, it
+was only the more bitter and effectual. He now returned with a powerful
+army devotedly attached to his person, and laden with treasure collected
+from the conquered cities of Asia.
+
+To disarm the enmity of the Italians, who formed the most valuable part
+of his opponents’ forces, he proclaimed that he would not interfere with
+the rights of any citizen, old or new. He suffered no injury to be done
+to either the towns or fields of the Italians, and he made separate
+treaties with many of their cities, by which he guaranteed their full
+enjoyment of Roman privileges so long as they should favor his interests.
+The Samnites alone held out against Sulla, and in concert with the Marian
+party renewed their old hostilities. Cinna was murdered by his own
+troops, on his way to meet Sulla in Dalma´tia.
+
+=143.= Landing at Brundis´ium, Sulla marched without opposition through
+Calabria, Apulia, and Campania; defeated one consul near Capua, and won
+over the entire army of the other by means of emissaries well supplied
+with gold. He was reinforced by three legions, under Cneius Pompey, and
+by the adherence of many distinguished citizens, among whom were Metellus
+Pius, Crassus, and Lucullus. He was still outnumbered by the Marians,
+who, in 82 B. C., brought into the field an army of 200,000 men, under
+the two consuls Papir´ius Carbo and the younger Marius. The latter was
+defeated, however, with great loss at Sacripor´tus, and took refuge in
+Præneste, where he had deposited his military chest, enriched by the
+treasures of the Capitoline temples. This town was blockaded, while Sulla
+marched upon Rome. Marius had secretly ordered his partisans in the city
+to put to death the most illustrious of the Cornelian faction; and thus
+perished the pontifex maximus, and many others whose sacred office or
+exalted character would, in more virtuous times, have made them secure
+from violence.
+
+=144.= The army of Samnites and Lucanians, by the request of Marius,
+moved toward Rome, Telesi´nus, their leader, declaring that he would raze
+the city to the ground. A furious battle was fought near the Colline
+Gate, in which Sulla was victorious; and, with a cold-blooded ferocity
+too common in those fearful times, ordered 6,000 prisoners to be cut to
+pieces in the Campus Martius. Sulla was now master of Rome and of Italy,
+and his vengeance had begun. A “proscription list” of his enemies was
+exhibited in the Forum, and a reward of two talents was offered to all
+who would kill these outlawed persons, or even show the place of their
+concealment. As usual, private hatred and even the meanest avarice found
+indulgence under the name of political enmity. Any friend of Sulla was
+permitted to add names to the list; and as the property of the proscribed
+usually went to his accuser, the possession of a house, a field, or even
+a piece of silver plate was often enough to mark a man as a public enemy.
+
+Sulla was appointed dictator, with unlimited power to “restore order to
+the Republic.” The constitutional changes which he made, were designed
+to re-instate the Senate and nobles in the preëminence which they had
+enjoyed in the earliest years after the expulsion of the kings. He
+limited the sway of the tribunes of the people, and lowered the dignity
+of their office by prohibiting those who had held it from becoming
+consuls. Though himself a man of dissolute morals, Sulla clearly saw
+that the worst miseries of the Roman people proceeded from their own
+corruption, and he tried to check luxury and crime by the most stringent
+enactments. But the attempt was hopeless; the character of the nation was
+so far degraded that no rank or class was fit to rule, and its subjection
+to the will of a tyrant had become a necessity.
+
+=145.= Sulla increased the number of the Senate by 300 new members chosen
+from the knights, all, of course, adherents of his own. He gained, also,
+a sort of body-guard, by giving the rights of citizenship to 10,000
+slaves of those whom he had proscribed. These freedmen all received
+his own clan-name, Cornelius, and became his clients. He rewarded his
+veterans with the confiscated lands of the Marian party, thus replacing
+honest and industrious farmers with too often lawless and thriftless
+military communities. When Sulla had held the dictatorship three years,
+he surprised the world by suddenly resigning it, and retiring to his
+country-seat at Pute´oli. Here he devoted his days to the amusements of
+literature, mingled, unhappily, with less ennobling pleasures. He died B.
+C. 78, the year following his abdication. Two days before his death he
+completed the history of his own life and times, in twenty-two volumes,
+in which he recorded the prediction of a Chaldæan soothsayer, that he
+should die, after a happy life, at the very height of his prosperity.
+
+=146.= A remnant of the Marian faction still held out in the west of
+Spain. Sertorius had been sent to command that province, chiefly because,
+as the most honest and keen-sighted of the Marians, he was troublesome to
+his brother officers. During the proscription by Sulla, he was joined
+by many exiles, who aided him in drilling the native troops. Though
+driven for a time into Africa by the proconsul An´nius, he returned,
+upon the invitation of the Lusitanians, with a Libyan and Moorish army,
+which defeated the fleet of Sulla in the Straits of Gibraltar, and his
+land forces near the Guadalquivir. All Roman Spain became subject to
+Sertorius. With the aid of Cilician pirates, he captured the islands of
+Ivi´ca and Formente´ra. He formed a government, in which the senate was
+composed only of Romans; but he distinguished the native Spaniards by
+many marks of favor, and won their confidence not only by his brilliant
+genius, but by his perfect justice in the administration of their affairs.
+
+=147.= Metellus, Sulla’s colleague in the consulship, who commanded his
+armies in Spain, was completely baffled by the unwearied activity and
+superior knowledge of the country displayed by Sertorius. At length
+Cneius Pompey, who had already, in his thirtieth year, gained the title
+of Great, and the honor of a triumph for his victories over the allies of
+the Marians in Africa, was sent into Spain with the title of proconsul,
+to share the command with Metellus. His military skill far surpassed that
+of his predecessors, but for five years the war was still dragged out
+with more loss and vexation than success.
+
+At last, Sertorius was murdered by one of his own officers, a man of
+high birth, who envied the ascendency of genius and integrity, and hoped
+by removing his general to open the way to his own advancement. He was
+totally defeated and captured by Pompey in the first battle which he
+fought as commander-in-chief; and though he tried to save his life by
+giving up the papers of Sertorius, and thus betraying the secrets of his
+party in Rome, he was ordered to instant execution, B. C. 72.
+
+=148.= The Spanish war was now ended, but a nearer and greater danger
+threatened Rome. The pride and luxury fed by foreign conquest had brought
+no increase of refinement to the common people; and their favorite
+amusement for festal days was to see the bravest captives, taken in war
+and trained for the purpose, slaughter each other in the amphitheater.
+The ædiles, who provided the public shows, vied with each other in the
+numbers and training of the gladiators, whom they either bought or hired
+from their owners for exhibition. Among the unhappy men who were under
+training in the school at Capua, was a Thracian peasant named Spar´tacus.
+His soul revolted against the beastly fate to which he was doomed, and
+he communicated his spirit to seventy of his comrades. Forcibly breaking
+bounds, they passed out at the gates of Capua, seized upon the road some
+wagon-loads of gladiators’ weapons, and took refuge in an extinct crater
+of Vesuvius. They defeated 3,000 soldiers who besieged them, and armed
+themselves more effectively with the spoils of the slain.
+
+Spartacus proclaimed freedom to all slaves who would join him. The
+half-savage herdsmen of the Bruttian and Lucanian mountains sprang to
+arms at his call, and the number of insurgents quickly rose to 40,000.
+They defeated two legions under the prætor Varinius, stormed and
+plundered Thurii and Metapon´tum, Nola and Nuce´ria, and many other towns
+of southern Italy. In the second year their forces were increased to
+100,000 men, and they defeated successively two consuls, two prætors, and
+the governor of Cisalpine Gaul. All Italy, from the Alps to the Straits
+of Messana, quaked at the name of Spartacus, as it had done, more than a
+hundred years before, at that of Hannibal; but it only proved the decay
+of Roman character, that a mere bandit chief could accomplish what had
+once taxed the genius of the greatest general whom the world had yet
+produced.
+
+=149.= Spartacus, however, saw clearly that in the end the organized
+power and resources of Rome must be superior to his own, and he only
+proposed to his followers to fight their way to and beyond the Alps,
+and then disperse to their homes; but the insurgents, spoiled with
+success, refused to leave Italy, and turned again to the south. Their
+winter-quarters, near Thurii, were like an immense fair crowded with
+the plunder of the whole peninsula, which merchants from far and near
+assembled to buy. Spartacus refused gold or silver, and took in exchange
+only iron or brass, which he converted into weapons of war by means of
+foundries established in his camp. In the panic which pervaded Rome, no
+one was willing to offer himself for the office of prætor. At length,
+Licinius Crassus accepted the appointment, and led eight legions into the
+field.
+
+=150.= Spartacus was twice defeated, and driven to the southern point of
+Bruttium. Thence he tried to escape into Sicily, where the servile war
+was still smoldering and ready to be rekindled, and where, by holding the
+grain fields, he could soon have raised a bread-riot among the hungry
+mob of Rome. But the Cilician pirates, who had engaged to transport him,
+proved treacherous; and his attempt to convey his army across the straits
+on rafts and wicker boats was ineffectual. He then, in despair, broke the
+lines of Crassus, and once more threw Rome into great consternation.
+
+But the same jealousies which had scattered the forces of Greeks and
+Romans, doomed the barbarians, also, to destruction. Thirty thousand
+Gauls separated themselves from Spartacus and his Thracians, and were
+totally destroyed near Crotona. The final encounter took place on the
+head-waters of the Silarus. Spartacus fell desperately fighting, and his
+army was destroyed. Only 5,000 of his men made their way to the north of
+Italy, where they were met by Pompey on his return from Spain, and all
+put to the sword. The 6,000 prisoners taken by Crassus were crucified
+along the Appian Way.
+
+=151.= The two triumphant generals, Pompey and Crassus, demanded the
+consulship as their reward. To attain this, it was needful to set aside
+some of the Sullæan laws, for Pompey had neither reached the required
+age nor passed through the preliminary offices. But the deliverers of
+Rome could not ask in vain. On Dec. 31, B. C. 71, Pompey triumphed a
+second time for his victories in Spain; the next day, Jan. 1, B. C.
+70, he entered on the duties of his consulship with Licinius Crassus.
+Though formerly a chief instrument of the oligarchy under Sulla, Pompey
+now attached himself to the democratic party, more especially to the
+wealthy middle class. He restored to the tribunes of the people the power
+which Sulla had taken away, and caused judges to be chosen no longer
+exclusively from the Senate, but in equal proportions from the Senate,
+the knights, and the tribunes of the treasury—a class of moneyed men who
+collected and paid the revenues due to the soldiers.
+
+Reform in the government of the provinces was a rallying cry of the new
+party, and the year of Pompey’s consulate was marked by the prosecution
+of Verres, ex-prætor of Syracuse, for his shameless robbery of the
+province of Sicily. The impeachment was conducted by Marcus Tullius
+Cicero, the great lawyer and orator, whose wonderful learning and
+eloquence had already made him illustrious. Cicero was allowed one
+hundred and ten days to collect evidence of Verres’s guilt. In less
+than half the time he returned from Sicily, followed by a long train of
+witnesses, whose fortunes had been ruined by the fraud and inhumanity of
+the prætor. Verres himself had been heard to boast that he had amassed
+wealth enough to support a life-time of luxury, even if he should spend
+two-thirds of his ill-gotten gains in hushing inquiry or in buying a
+pardon; and the unhappy provincials plainly declared that, if he were
+acquitted, they would petition the Senate to repeal all the laws against
+official injustice, that in future their governors might, at least, only
+plunder to enrich themselves, and not to bribe their judges. But Verres
+was condemned, and not even awaiting his sentence, escaped with his
+treasures to Massilia.
+
+=152.= At the end of his consulship, Pompey did not accept a province,
+but remained quietly in Rome, taking no part in public affairs. An
+increasing danger soon demanded the exercise of his talents. Since the
+destruction of the naval power of Carthage, Syria, and Egypt, the pirates
+of the Cilician coast had cruised unchecked throughout the Mediterranean,
+and had even been encouraged by Mithridates and Sertorius in their enmity
+against Rome. They captured the corn-ships, plundered the wealthiest
+cities, and even attacked Roman dignity in its most imposing form, by
+carrying off great magistrates, with their trains of attendants, from the
+Appian Way.
+
+The crisis demanded extraordinary measures, and, in B. C. 67, Pompey was
+intrusted with absolute and irresponsible control of the Mediterranean,
+with a district extending fifty miles inland from its coasts, and with
+unlimited command of ships, money, and men. The price of provisions fell
+instantly upon his appointment, showing the confidence which his great
+ability had inspired. In forty days he had swept the western sea, and
+restored the broken communication between Italy, Africa, and Spain. Then
+sailing from Brundisium, he cleared the sea to the eastward, hunting the
+corsairs from all their inlets by means of the several squadrons under
+his fifteen lieutenants, and winning many to voluntary submission by his
+merciful treatment of the prisoners who fell into his hands.
+
+The final battle took place near the Cilician coast, above which, on
+the heights of Mount Taurus, the pirates had placed their families and
+their plunder. They were defeated; 10,000 men were slain, their arsenals,
+magazines, and 1,300 vessels destroyed, while 400 ships and 20,000
+prisoners were taken. Pompey showed no less wisdom in disposing of his
+captives than energy in defeating them. They were settled in isolated
+towns, and provided with honest employment; and as a result of the short
+and decisive conflict of three months, the Mediterranean remained safe
+and open to peaceful traffic for many years.
+
+=153.= The Mithridatic War, though conducted with great ability by
+Lucullus, had become disastrous to the Romans; and a new law, proposed
+by Manil´ius, now extended Pompey’s jurisdiction over all the forces
+in Asia, with power to make war, peace, or alliance with the several
+kings at his own discretion. Within a year, B. C. 66, he received the
+submission of the king of Armenia, and drove Mithridates beyond the
+Cau´casus. He deposed the last of the Seleucidæ, and placed Syria, as
+well as Pontus and Bithynia, under provincial management.
+
+As centers of Roman or Greek civilization, he founded thirty-nine new
+cities, beside rebuilding or reviving many old ones. Among the former
+was Nicop´olis—“the city of victory”—which he caused to be built as a
+home for his veteran soldiers, on the site of the decisive overthrow of
+Mithridates. He subdued Phœnicia and Palestine, B. C. 63, captured the
+temple-fortress of Jerusalem by a siege of three months, and established
+Hyrcanus as “high priest and ruler of the people.” The next year he
+returned to Italy in a long triumphal procession.
+
+
+RECAPITULATION.
+
+    Death of Drusus is followed by the Social War, in the
+    victorious ending of which Sulla gains great glory. Marius
+    interferes by violence with his appointment to command in the
+    war against Pontus. Sulla overpowers the city by his legions,
+    and Marius becomes an exile. After Sulla’s departure he
+    returns, captures Rome, and massacres his opponents, but dies
+    soon after the beginning of his seventh consulship. Sulla,
+    returning triumphant from the East, defeats the new consuls and
+    their allies, and by his proscriptions makes havoc with life
+    and property at Rome. As dictator, he restores the aristocratic
+    government of the early Republic. He dies in retirement, B.
+    C. 78. Sertorius, ten years sovereign in Spain, is opposed by
+    Pompey, and murdered, B. C. 72. War of the gladiators, under
+    Spartacus, fills all Italy with terror, B. C. 73-71. It is
+    ended by Crassus, who, with Pompey the Great, becomes consul
+    for B. C. 70. Cicero impeaches Verres for extortion in Sicily.
+    Pompey, intrusted with extraordinary powers by the Gabinian
+    law, destroys the Cilician pirates; then completes the Pontic
+    War, and establishes Roman dominion in western Asia.
+
+
+CONQUESTS OF JULIUS CÆSAR.
+
+=154.= Rome, meanwhile, had narrowly escaped ruin from the iniquitous
+schemes of one of her own nobles. L. Ser´gius Catili´na, a man of ancient
+family, but worthless character and ruined fortunes, seized the time
+when all the troops were absent from Italy, to plot with other nobles,
+as wicked and turbulent as himself, for the overthrow of the government.
+The new consuls were to be murdered on the day of their inauguration.
+Catiline and Autro´nius were to take the supreme command in Italy, and
+Piso was to lead an army into Spain. The first plot failed through
+the imprudence of its leader; but a second, of still bolder and more
+comprehensive character, was formed. Eleven senators were drawn into the
+conspiracy; magazines of arms were formed, and troops levied in various
+parts of the peninsula. The wide-spread discontent of the people with the
+existing government aided the success of the movement; and, in the end,
+slaves, gladiators, and even criminals from the common prisons, were to
+be liberated and armed.
+
+The secret was kept by a vast number of persons for eighteen months, but
+the main features of the plot were at length made known to Cicero, then
+consul, and by his vigilance and prudence it was completely foiled. He
+confronted Catiline in the Senate—where the arch conspirator had the
+boldness to take his usual place—with an oration, in which he laid open
+with unsparing vehemence the minutest circumstances of the plot. The
+convicted ringleader fled from Rome in the night, and placed himself
+at the head of his two legions, hoping yet to strike an effective blow
+before the levies ordered by the Senate could be fit for service. His
+chief accomplices were seized and strangled in prison, by order of the
+Senate, while he himself was followed and defeated in Etruria by the
+proconsul Antonius. The battle was decisive. Catiline fell fighting far
+in advance of his troops, and 3,000 of his followers perished with him.
+No free Roman was taken alive. B. C. 62.
+
+=155.= Though this daring conspiracy was thus happily crushed, the
+weakness and disorder of society alarmed the best and wisest citizens.
+It was feared that some man of commanding talent might yet succeed where
+Catiline had failed, and overthrow the liberties of Rome. Pompey, now
+returning with his victorious legions from the East, was the immediate
+object of dread to the Senate and aristocratic party. But he quieted
+apprehension by disbanding his army as soon as he touched the soil of
+Italy, and proceeded slowly to Rome accompanied by only a few friends.
+They could not refuse his claim to a triumph, and from the number and
+extent of his victories, this pageant was the most imposing that Rome
+had ever seen. Although there was no army to lengthen the procession,
+it occupied two days in passing through the city. The inscriptions
+enumerated 22 kings and 12,000,000 of people as conquered; 800 ships,
+nearly 900 towns, and 1,000 fortresses taken; and the Roman revenues
+nearly doubled.
+
+By an unusual act of clemency, Pompey spared the lives of all his
+captives, and dismissed to their homes all except Aristobulus, of Judæa,
+and the young Tigranes, of Armenia, who were detained lest they should
+stir up revolts in their respective countries. But though the aristocrats
+of the Senate had taken part in the public honors paid to Pompey, they
+could not forget that his appointment in the East had been in defiance
+of their opposition. His demands of allotments of land to his veterans,
+and for himself a second consulship and the ratification of his official
+acts, were refused; and Pompey, to redeem his pledges to his soldiers,
+now made an alliance with an abler man, and one far more dangerous to
+the old order of things—if the Senate could but have foreseen it—than
+himself. B. C. 60.
+
+=156.= Caius Julius Cæsar had been proscribed in his eighteenth year,
+because he had refused to put away his young wife, Cornelia, the daughter
+of Cinna, at the command of Sulla. He was for a time a fugitive in danger
+of death, but his friends at length, with great difficulty, procured his
+pardon from the dictator, on the plea of his youth and insignificance.
+Sulla was more discerning; he remarked, “That boy will some day be the
+ruin of the aristocracy, for there are many Marii in him.”
+
+Upon the death of his aunt Julia, the widow of Marius, Cæsar defied
+the law which had pronounced her husband an enemy of the state, by
+causing his waxen image to be carried in the funeral procession. It was
+welcomed by the people with loud acclamations. In his ædileship, three
+years later—which, in the magnificence of the games celebrated, and the
+buildings erected at his own expense, surpassed all that had preceded
+it—Cæsar ventured upon a bolder step. He replaced in the Capitol,
+during one night, the statues of Marius, and the representations of his
+victories in Africa and Gaul, which had been removed by Sulla. When
+morning dawned, the common people and the veterans of Marius wept and
+shouted for joy at the re-appearance of the well-known features, and
+greeted Cæsar with rapturous applause. Though formally accused in the
+Senate of violating a law, he could not be condemned against the voice of
+the people.
+
+=157.= Dignities and honors followed in rapid succession. He became
+pontifex maximus in 63 B. C.; prætor, in 62; and at the end of his
+prætorship he obtained the government of Farther Spain. In this first
+military command he acquired not only wealth for himself and his
+soldiers, but great reputation by subduing the Lusitanian mountaineers.
+On his return, he desired both a triumph and the consulship; but he could
+not obtain the one if he entered the city before it was decreed, nor the
+other without being personally present at the approaching election; so he
+abandoned the showy for the solid advantage, and was duly chosen consul,
+with Bib´ulus, a tool of the Senate, for his colleague.
+
+=158.= He now managed to detach Pompey from the senatorial party, and
+form with him and Crassus a _triumvirate_, which, though only a secret
+agreement, not a public magistracy, ruled the Roman world for several
+years. The power of Crassus was due to his enormous wealth; that of
+Pompey, to his great military services; and that of Cæsar, to his
+unequaled genius and unbounded popularity. Their combined influence was
+soon felt in the official acts of Cæsar. He brought forward an Agrarian
+law for dividing the rich public lands of Campania among the poorest
+citizens. It was passed against the violent opposition of Bibulus and all
+the aristocratic party; a commission of twenty, with Pompey and Crassus
+at its head, was appointed to divide the lands, and the veterans thus
+obtained most of their claims.
+
+The defeated consul, who had declared that he would rather die than
+yield, now shut himself up in his house, and never re-appeared in public
+until his year of office had expired. Cæsar obtained a ratification of
+all Pompey’s acts in Asia, and, at the same time, attached the equites to
+his party, by giving them more favorable terms in farming the provincial
+revenues. At the close of his consulship he obtained the government of
+Illyricum and Gaul, on both sides of the Alps, for a term of five years,
+with a general commission to “protect the friends and allies of the Roman
+people.”
+
+=159.= The religious and national bond between the many Celtic tribes
+which inhabited the ancient territories of Britain, Belgium, France,
+Switzerland, and a part of Spain, was strong enough to unite them, now
+and then, in resistance to their common enemies, the Germans on the north
+and the Romans on the south, but not strong enough to prevent rivalries
+among themselves, which often gave the foreign power room to interfere
+in their affairs. The Roman province, founded B. C. 121, now extended
+northward along the Rhone as far as Geneva; and a great emigration of
+Germans had occupied territories west of the Rhine, from the neighborhood
+of the modern Strasbourg to the German Ocean.
+
+=160.= During his first summer in Gaul, Cæsar, by the extraordinary
+swiftness and decision of his movements, subdued two nations and
+established Roman supremacy in the center of the country. The Helvetii,
+who lived between Lake Geneva and the Jura, finding themselves in too
+narrow quarters, had resolved to emigrate and conquer new habitations to
+the westward. They burned their twelve towns and four hundred villages,
+and assembled at Geneva to the number of 368,000 persons, men, women,
+and children, intending to pass through the Roman province into western
+Gaul. Cæsar prevented this move by a wall nineteen miles in length,
+which he extended along the left bank of the Rhone; and bringing up
+three legions from Italy, he followed the Helvetians along their second
+route, and defeated them near Bibrac´te. The remnant of the nation—less
+than one-third of the number on their muster-rolls when the migration
+began—were ordered back to their native hills.
+
+The Seq´uani, a Celtic tribe north of the Helvetii, had called in
+Ariovis´tus, the most powerful of the German chiefs, against their rivals
+the Ædui, who were styled allies and kinsmen of the Romans. Having
+subdued the Ædui, Ariovistus turned upon his late allies, and demanded
+two-thirds of their lands in payment for his services. All the Gauls
+begged aid of Cæsar, who met the German prince near the Rhine, in what
+is now Alsace. So great was the fame of Ariovistus and his gigantic
+barbarians, who for fourteen years had not slept under a roof, that the
+Roman soldiers were afraid to fight; and though shamed out of their
+cowardice by the stirring appeal of their general, every man made his
+will before going into battle. The result of the combat was the complete
+destruction of the German host, only Ariovistus and a few followers
+escaping across the Rhine.
+
+=161.= The second year, Cæsar conquered the Belgians north of the Seine,
+and the Senate decreed a public thanksgiving of fifteen days for the
+subjugation of Gaul. His lieutenant, Decimus Brutus, fought the first
+naval battle on the Atlantic, with the high-built sailing vessels of the
+Celts. The maritime tribes revolting the following winter, were subdued;
+and but for a few brief rebellions, the territories of France and Belgium
+remained under Roman dominion. Cæsar repaired each winter to his province
+of Cisalpine Gaul, to watch affairs in Italy. In 56 B. C., he had to
+reconcile Pompey with Crassus, and re-arrange, in his camp at Luca, the
+affairs of the triumvirate.
+
+It was agreed that Pompey and Crassus should be consuls the next year,
+and that, after their term had expired, the former should govern Spain,
+and the latter Asia, while the proconsular government of Cæsar in Gaul
+should be prolonged to a second term of five years. In choosing the most
+arduous and least lucrative province for himself, Cæsar wished to begin
+the execution of his great scheme for civilizing the West, and organizing
+the whole Roman dominion into one compact state. The revolution begun by
+the Gracchi was not yet completed, and it was easy to see that the strife
+of parties must come again to the sword, as it had in the time of Marius
+and Sulla. In such a case, Cæsar desired to be near Italy, and to have an
+army trained to perfect discipline and devotion to himself.
+
+=162.= In the fourth year, B. C. 55, he threw a bridge across the Rhine
+and invaded Germany. Late in the autumn, he made a reconnoitering
+expedition to Britain, and received hostages from the tribes. This
+time the Senate decreed twenty days’ thanksgiving, though Cato stoutly
+insisted that Cæsar ought, rather, to be given up to the vengeance of
+the barbarians, to avert the anger of the gods for his having seized the
+German embassadors. The next year, B. C. 54, Cæsar again invaded Britain
+with five legions. Notwithstanding the brave resistance of a native
+chief, Cas´sivelau´nus, he penetrated north of the Thames, took hostages,
+and imposed tribute; but he left no military posts to hold the island in
+subjection.
+
+A formidable revolt of the Gauls, the following winter, destroyed one of
+the six divisions of the Roman army, and imperiled another, commanded by
+Quintus Cicero, brother of the orator. Cæsar came to its relief, defeated
+60,000 of the enemy, and restored quietness to the north. The Germans
+having aided in this revolt, he again crossed the Rhine near Coblentz, in
+the summer of 53 B. C. He fought no battles, for the people took refuge
+among their wooded hills; but the invasion served, as before, to make an
+imposing display of Roman power.
+
+=163.= The following year, Gaul was every-where in a blaze of revolt,
+and the campaign was the most difficult and brilliant of all Cæsar’s
+operations. Ver´cinget´orix, king of the Arver´ni, and the ablest of the
+Gallic chieftains, stirred up all the tribes, and nearly wrested the
+country from Roman control. While Cæsar was besieging him in Ale´sia, a
+Gallic army of more than a quarter of a million of men encamped around
+the Romans and besieged them in turn. But the genius of the proconsul
+surmounted even this crisis. He kept down all attempts at sortie, while
+he defeated the outer army; then forced the town to surrender, and
+captured Vercingetorix himself. Six years later, the Gallic chief adorned
+the triumph of Cæsar, and was then executed in the Mamertine prison at
+the foot of the Capitol. The Gauls now saw that resistance was hopeless.
+The firm and skillful management of Cæsar in pacifying the country
+and organizing the Roman rule, completed the work that his brilliant
+victories had prepared; and by the year 50 B. C., Gaul was at peace.
+
+=164.= Meanwhile, Crassus, fearing that his colleagues would reap all
+the warlike glory of the league, undertook, after plundering the temples
+of the East, to make war against Parthia—a war unprovoked by the enemy,
+unauthorized by the Senate, and unwarranted by his own abilities.
+Contrary to advice, he plunged into the hot and sandy desert east of the
+Euphrates, lost the greater part of his army in a battle near Carrhæ (the
+Haran of Abraham), and was himself slain, soon after, by the treachery of
+the Parthian general, B. C. 53.
+
+Pompey, now sole consul, no longer pretended any friendship for Cæsar.
+The conqueror of Mithridates and the Cilician pirates did not fancy that
+he could be eclipsed by any man; and the relationship between them was
+lately dissolved by the death of Julia, the daughter of Cæsar, who had
+been the wife of Pompey. The enemies of the former obtained a decree of
+the Senate requiring him to surrender his proconsular power, and return
+to Rome before becoming candidate for a second consulship. Cato had
+declared that he would prosecute Cæsar for capital offenses as soon as he
+should resign his command.
+
+It could hardly have been expected that the governor of Gaul would quit
+his devoted legions, and all the treasures of the conquered province, to
+place himself unarmed at the mercy of his enemies. Such virtue had been
+known in the days of Curtius, but self-surrender for the public good had
+ceased to be fashionable at Rome. Moreover, Cæsar may well have doubted
+whether the sacrifice of his life would promote the public interests.
+The Romans required a master; and his own plans for building up a great
+empire from the scattered fragments of provinces, by extending equal
+rights to all the conquered peoples, were doubtless the most enlarged and
+beneficent that had yet been formed. He believed that the great interests
+of Rome were consistent with his own.
+
+=165.= His enemies lost no opportunity to deprive him of resources. Under
+pretext of a war with Parthia, the two former colleagues of Crassus
+were required to furnish each one legion to be sent to Asia. Pompey had
+formerly lent a legion to Cæsar, and now demanded its return. Cæsar
+dismissed the two legions, giving to each man his share of the treasure
+which was to be distributed at his approaching triumph. He wrote at the
+same time to the Senate, offering to resign his command if Pompey would
+do the same, but not otherwise. The two legions were kept in Italy. After
+a violent debate, it was enacted that Cæsar should, without conditions,
+disband his army on a certain day, under penalty of being declared an
+enemy of the state. The tribunes, Antonius and Cassius, vetoed the
+motion, but their veto was set aside; and believing their lives in
+danger, they fled to Cæsar’s camp at Raven´na.
+
+
+RECAPITULATION.
+
+    Catiline’s deep-laid conspiracy is defeated by Cicero, and its
+    lender slain in battle. Pompey disbands his army and triumphs
+    for his conquests in Asia. He forms with Cæsar, now consul, and
+    Crassus, the first triumvirate. The next year, B. C. 58, Cæsar,
+    as proconsul, assumes the command in Gaul; subdues the Helvetii
+    and the Germans, under Ariovistus, in one campaign; afterward
+    conquers the Belgæ; twice bridges the Rhine and ravages
+    Germany; twice invades Britain; suppresses revolts in Gaul,
+    and organizes the whole country into a peaceful and permanent
+    part of the Roman dominion. Crassus, in Asia, is overwhelmingly
+    defeated, with the loss of his army and his life, B. C. 53.
+    Pompey breaks with Cæsar, and becomes the champion of the
+    Senate.
+
+
+CÆSAR MASTER OF ROME.
+
+=166.= It was time for decisive action. Cæsar crossed the Rubicon, a
+little river which separated his province from Roman Italy, and advanced
+with one legion, the troops in Gaul having received orders to follow
+without delay. To enter the country without resigning his command was
+itself a declaration of war. Panic seized Rome, and the Senate fled,
+leaving the public treasures behind. Fifteen thousand recruits, destined
+for Pompey’s army, seized their officers and handed them over, with
+themselves and the town Corfin´ium, where they were quartered, to Cæsar.
+Other bodies of recruits followed their example. Pompey, having lost more
+than half his ten legions, retired to Brundisium; and though besieged by
+Cæsar, succeeded in escaping with 25,000 men to Greece.
+
+The Roman world was now really divided between the two generals. Pompey
+controlled Spain, Africa, and the East, and hoped, by commanding the sea
+and the corn islands, to starve Italy into surrender. Cæsar had only
+Italy, Illyricum, and Gaul. If Pompey had acted with energy, he might
+speedily have created an army in the East and regained Rome, but by
+delay he allowed Cæsar to attack his provinces in detail, and wrest the
+entire empire from his grasp. The emigrated nobles assembled themselves
+at Thessalonica and re-organized a senate, in which they made a vain show
+of keeping up the constitutional forms, while, by their petty jealousies,
+they hampered every movement of their general-in-chief.
+
+=167.= Cu´rio, the ablest of Cæsar’s lieutenants, captured Sicily, and
+thus averted famine from Rome. In Africa he was less fortunate. Drawn
+into an unexpected combat with the whole army of King Juba, he was
+defeated, and chose to be slain rather than meet his general in disgrace.
+Instead of the anarchy and general proscription which his enemies had
+predicted, Cæsar soon restored order in Italy, and universal confidence,
+by the moderation and forbearance of his conduct. Friends and foes were
+equally protected. The moneyed class, which had most to gain from a
+settled government, came over to the side of Cæsar, and the “rich lords
+resumed their daily task of writing their rent-rolls.”
+
+His first foreign enterprise was against Spain, where Pompey had seven
+legions. It was conquered by a severe and toilsome campaign of forty
+days. Returning through Gaul, Cæsar received the surrender of Massilia,
+and learned of his appointment to the dictatorship at Rome. He held this
+high office only eleven days, but long enough to preside at the election
+of consuls, in which he himself, of course, received the greatest number
+of votes; to pass laws relieving debtors, and restoring to the enjoyment
+of their estates the descendants of those whom Sulla had proscribed; and
+to begin his scheme of consolidating the provinces, by granting the full
+rights of Roman citizenship to the Gauls.
+
+=168.= As consul, he then led his army to Brundisium and crossed into
+Greece. Pompey had assembled from the eastern countries a great army and
+fleet, the latter of which commanded the sea, and seemed to forbid the
+passage of Cæsar. But Bibulus, the admiral, confiding in his superior
+numbers and the wintry season, was off his guard until seven legions were
+landed in Epirus. The attempt to capture Pompey’s camp and treasures, at
+Dyrra´chium, failed; but the vain confidence inspired by their partial
+success, in the proud and frivolous young nobles of the refugee party,
+eventually proved their ruin.
+
+Cæsar was, indeed, in a perilous position; his fleet was destroyed,
+and he was cut off in a hostile country where food must soon fail.
+Nevertheless, with his usual good fortune or consummate skill, he
+contrived to draw his victorious enemy after him to the interior of the
+country, where Pompey’s fleet gave him no advantage, and then to choose
+his own battle-field at Pharsa´lia, in Thessaly. The army of Pompey, in
+horse and foot, numbered 54,000 men; that of Cæsar, scarcely more than
+22,000. The former was abundantly supplied both with provisions and
+military materials, while the latter was near the point of starvation,
+and compelled to stake its existence on one desperate venture. So certain
+did the result appear, that the patricians in Pompey’s camp were already
+disputing among themselves the succession to Cæsar’s pontificate.
+
+=169.= On the 9th of August, B. C. 48, the Pompeians crossed the river
+which separated the two camps, and with their cavalry commenced the
+attack. Cæsar’s horsemen were driven in, but a picked troop of his
+legionaries, tried on a hundred Gallic fields, unexpectedly charged the
+assailants. Their orders were to aim their javelins at the enemies’
+faces. Confused by this novel attack, the cavalry turned and fled; and
+Pompey, who had been urged by the reproaches of his self-appointed
+counselors to give battle, contrary to his better judgment, and who had
+never shared their confidence, did not wait to see the general attack,
+but galloped away to his camp.
+
+His army was completely routed; 15,000 lay dead upon the field, and
+20,000 surrendered on the morning after the battle. Many of the
+aristocracy hastened to make their peace with the conqueror; the
+“irreconcilables” either betook themselves to the mountains or the sea,
+to carry on for years a predatory warfare; or to Africa, where King Juba,
+of Numidia, perceiving that Cæsar’s consolidating policy would deprive
+him of his kingdom, still stood firmly on the Pompeian side. The other
+client-states withdrew their quotas of ships and men as soon as they saw
+that Pompey’s cause was lost.
+
+=170.= Pompey fled to Egypt. The young queen, Cleopatra, was now in
+Syria, having been driven from her kingdom by her brother’s guardian,
+Pothi´nus, who was with an army holding the eastern frontier against
+her. The perfidious statesmen who surrounded the king, sent out a boat
+inviting the illustrious fugitive to land; but just as he had reached
+the shore, he was stabbed by a former centurion of his own, who was now
+in the service of Ptolemy. Pompey perceived his fate; without a word,
+he covered his face with his toga, and submitted to the swords of his
+executioners. His head was cut off, and his body cast out upon the sand,
+where it was buried by one of his own attendants.
+
+Cæsar soon arrived in pursuit; but when the ghastly head was presented
+to him, he turned away weeping, and ordered the murderers to be put to
+death. He remained five mouths at Alexandria, regulating the affairs of
+the kingdom, which he secured to Cleopatra jointly with her brother. He
+thus became involved in war with the people, and in a naval battle was
+once compelled to save his life by swimming from ship to ship, holding
+his sword in his teeth, and the manuscript of his Commentaries upon the
+Gallic Wars in one hand over his head. He was victorious at last, and
+Ptolemy was drowned in the Nile.
+
+=171.= Cæsar then turned rapidly toward Asia Minor, where Pharnaces of
+Pontus was trying to regain his father’s lost dominions. The Roman army
+had been defeated at Nicopolis with great loss, but Cæsar won a decisive
+victory at Zie´la, and finished the campaign in five days. It was on this
+occasion that he sent to the Senate his memorable dispatch, “Veni, vidi,
+vici.”[75] The presence of the chief made a similar transformation of the
+war in Africa. The Pompeian party had re-established its senate at Utica,
+and during Cæsar’s long delay in Egypt had raised an army fully equal to
+that which had been conquered at Pharsalia.
+
+In attempting to carry the war into Africa, Cæsar met an unexpected
+obstacle in a mutiny of his veterans in southern Italy. Wearied out with
+the unusual hardships of their last campaigns, and imagining that their
+general could do nothing without them, they refused to embark for Sicily,
+and commenced their march toward Rome. Having provided for the security
+of the city, Cæsar suddenly appeared among the legions, and demanded
+to know what they wanted. Cries of “discharge!” were heard on every
+hand. He took them instantly at their word; and then addressing them as
+“citizens,” not as “soldiers,” promised them, at his approaching triumph,
+their full share in the treasure and lands which he had destined for his
+faithful followers, though in the triumph itself they could, of course,
+have no part.
+
+His presence and his voice revived their old affection; they stood mute
+and ashamed at the sudden severing of the bond which had been their
+only glory in the past. At length they began to beg, even with tears,
+that they might be restored to favor, and honored again with the name
+of “Cæsar’s soldiers.” After some delay their prayer was granted; the
+ring-leaders were only punished by a reduction of one-third in their
+triumphal presents, and the revolt was at an end.
+
+=172.= The campaign in Africa was not less difficult than the one in
+Greece. The Pompeians were well supplied with cavalry and elephants, and
+were able to fight on fields of their own choosing. They gained a battle
+near Rus´pina, but in the more decisive conflict at Thapsus, they were
+completely overthrown. The soldiers of Cæsar disregarded his orders to
+spare their fellow-citizens; they were determined to obtain rest from
+war at any cost of Roman blood, and 50,000 Pompeians were left dead upon
+the battle-field. Cæsar was now master of all Africa. Cato, commanding
+at Utica, provided for the safety of his friends either by flight or
+surrender; then shutting himself in his room, read all night the treatise
+of Plato on the Immortality of the Soul, and toward morning killed
+himself with his own sword.
+
+[Illustration: Coin of Cæsar, enlarged twice the size.]
+
+=173.= Cæsar returned to Rome in possession of absolute power. Instead
+of the proscriptions, which, in similar circumstances, had marked the
+return of Marius and Sulla, he proclaimed amnesty to all, and sought
+to avail himself of the wisdom of all parties in reorganizing civil
+affairs. As he had never triumphed, he now celebrated four days for his
+victories in Gaul, Egypt, Pontus, and Numidia; but the rejoicings were
+only for the conquest of foreign foes, for it was regarded as unseemly to
+triumph over Roman citizens. Twenty thousand tables were spread in the
+streets and public squares, gifts of grain and money were distributed
+among soldiers and people, and the games were celebrated with a splendor
+never before approached. Cæsar now applied himself with diligence to
+regulate the disorders of the state; and the benefit of one, at least, of
+his provisions is felt even to the present day. The reckoning of time,
+through the carelessness or corruption of the pontiffs (see § 29), had
+fallen into hopeless confusion: harvest festivals took place in spring,
+and those of the late vintage at midsummer. Cæsar, as chief pontiff,
+reformed the calendar, by adding ninety days to the current year, and
+then, with the aid of an Alexandrian astronomer, adapted the reckoning
+to the sun’s course. He made the Roman year consist of 365 days, and
+added a day every fourth year. The Julian Calendar, with only one
+emendation,[76] is that which we now follow. In acknowledgment of his
+service in this matter, the Senate ordered the month of Cæsar’s birth to
+be called henceforth from his clan-name, July. His successor, Augustus,
+on occasion of some trifling improvement in the calendar, gave his own
+surname to the following month.
+
+=174.= The Pompeians made one more rally in Spain, but they were defeated
+and overthrown by Cæsar, in the severe and decisive battle of Munda,
+March 17, B. C. 45. Cneius Pompey, the younger, was slain; his brother
+Sextus soon submitted, and received the family estates. He was proscribed
+during the disorders which followed the death of Cæsar, and for eight
+years kept up a piratical warfare upon the sea. Having settled the
+affairs of Spain, Cæsar celebrated a fifth triumph, and was loaded by the
+servile Senate with unlimited powers and dignities. He became dictator
+and censor for life, the latter office now receiving its new title,
+præfecture of morals. He was permitted to make peace or war without
+consulting either Senate or people. In his highest and most distinctive
+power, that of perpetual imperator, he was to name his successor. His
+person was declared sacred, and all the senators bound themselves by oath
+to watch over his safety. His statues were ordered to be placed in all
+the temples, and his name in civil oaths was associated with those of the
+gods.
+
+=175.= Cæsar availed himself of his unprecedented power to plan many
+great works of general utility. He projected a much-needed digest of
+Roman laws, and the founding of a Latin and Greek library on the model
+of that of Alexandria, which had been almost destroyed by fire during
+the recent siege. He proposed to turn the course of the Tiber, so as at
+once to drain the Pontine marshes, to add to the city an extensive tract
+of land available for building, and to connect with Rome the large and
+convenient port of Terraci´na, instead of the inferior one of Ostia.
+
+Above all, he desired to substitute a great Mediterranean empire for the
+mere city government which, for more than a hundred years, had ruled
+Italy and the world. To atone for the narrow policy of municipal Rome,
+he rebuilt the two great commercial cities, Carthage and Corinth, which
+Roman jealousy had demolished; and he effaced, as far as possible, the
+distinctions between Italy and the provinces. In the many colonies which
+he founded in Europe, Asia, and Africa, he provided homes for 80,000
+emigrants, mostly from the crowded tenement houses of Rome itself.
+His plans embraced the varied interests of every class and nation
+within the empire, and aimed to reach, by the union of all, a higher
+civilization than either had attained alone. In the wildest regions of
+Germany, Dalmatia, or Spain, the Roman soldier was followed by the Greek
+school-master and the Jewish trader.
+
+=176.= Though occupying the highest rank as a general, Cæsar was more a
+statesman than a warrior, and desired to base his government, not upon
+military power, but upon the confidence of the people. He was already in
+his fortieth year when he first assumed the command of an army. Still,
+his great works as a ruler had all to be executed in the brief intervals
+of military affairs. The five and a half years which followed his
+accession to supreme power were occupied by seven important campaigns;
+and he was about undertaking an expedition against Parthia, to avenge the
+overthrow of Crassus, when a violent death ended his career. It is said
+that he desired, before his departure, to receive the title of king.
+
+A conspiracy had already been formed among his personal enemies. It was
+now strengthened by the accession of several honest republicans, who
+dreamed that the death of the dictator would restore freedom to the
+state. At the festival of the Lupercalia, Feb. 15, B. C. 44, the crown
+was offered to Cæsar, by Antony, his colleague in the consulship; but,
+perceiving the consternation of the people, he declined it. On the 15th
+of the following month, in spite of many warnings, Cæsar repaired to the
+Senate-house. He had just taken his seat, when one of the conspirators
+stooped and touched his robe. At this signal, Casca stabbed him in the
+shoulder; the others thronged around with their drawn swords or daggers.
+
+Instead of the flattering crowd, nothing but murderous faces and the
+gleam of steel met his eye on every side. Still he stood at bay, wounding
+one assailant with his stylus, throwing back another, and disarming a
+third, until he received a wound from the hand of Brutus, whom, though
+an adherent of Pompey, he had honored with his confidence and loaded
+with benefits. Then drawing his mantle about him, with the reproachful
+exclamation, “And _thou_, Brutus!” he fell at the base of Pompey’s statue
+and expired.
+
+=177.= Brutus, raising aloft his bloody dagger, cried aloud to Cicero,
+“Rejoice, father of our country, for Rome is free!” Never was rejoicing
+more unfounded. If Brutus and his accomplices could have restored to the
+Roman people the simple and self-denying virtues of the olden time, Rome
+would indeed have been free. But Cæsar understood the times better than
+his assassins. In cutting off the only man who was capable of ruling with
+clear insight, firmness, and beneficence, they had plunged the state
+again into the horrors of civil war, and made it the easy prey of a less
+able and less liberal despot. Senate and people were at first paralyzed
+by the suddenness of the change, and by fear of a return to the old
+scenes of proscription. Antony, now sole consul, had time to possess
+himself of Cæsar’s papers and treasures; and by his funeral oration over
+the body of the dictator—especially by reading his will, in which all
+the Roman people were remembered with great liberality—he roused the
+indignant passions of the crowd against the murderers.
+
+Antony was for a time the most popular man in Rome, but a rival soon
+appeared in the person of Octavia´nus, the grand-nephew and adopted son
+of Julius Cæsar. This young man, who had been educated with great care
+under the eye of his adoptive father, arrived from the camp at Apollonia
+and claimed his inheritance, out of which he carefully distributed the
+legacies to soldiers and people. Cicero was led to look upon him as the
+hope of the state, and in his third great series of orations, called the
+Philip´pics, he destroyed the popularity of Antony and his influence with
+the Senate. Two of Antony’s legions deserted to Octavian, and Antony
+himself, in two battles, was routed and driven across the Alps.
+
+=178.= The two consuls for the year 43 B. C. were slain in the battle
+before Mu´tina. Octavian, returning to Rome, compelled the popular
+assembly to elect him to that office, though he was only nineteen years
+of age. He was appointed to carry on the war against Antony, who had now
+been joined by Lepidus—formerly master of the horse to Julius Cæsar—and
+was now descending from the Alps with a formidable army of seventeen
+legions. But the Senate, almost equally afraid of Antony and Octavian,
+revoked the outlawry of the former; and the latter, disgusted with its
+vacillations, resolved upon a league with the two commanders, whose
+forces alone could give him victory over the assassins.
+
+On a small island in the Reno, near Bono´nia (Bologna), the three met,
+and the Second Triumvirate, of Antony, Cæsar Octavianus, and Lepidus, was
+then formed, B. C. 43, proposing to share between them for five years the
+government of the Roman world. A proscription followed, in which Cicero,
+though the friend of Cæsar, was sacrificed to the hatred of Antony. The
+illustrious orator was murdered near his own villa at For´miæ, and his
+head and right hand were nailed to the rostrum at Rome, from which he
+had so often discoursed of the sacred rights of citizens. Two thousand
+knights and three hundred senators perished in this proscription. Those
+who could escape took refuge with Sextus Pompey in Sicily, or with Brutus
+and Cassius in Greece.
+
+=179.= Antony and Octavian crossed the Adriatic, and defeated the last
+of the conspirators in two battles at Philippi, in the autumn of 42 B.
+C. Both Brutus and Cassius ended their lives by suicide. Cæsar returned
+to Italy, where a new civil war was stirred up by Fulvia, the wife of
+Antony, and Lucius, his brother. Lucius Antonius threw himself into
+Perusia, where he was besieged and taken by Octavian. The common citizens
+were spared, but 300 or 400 nobles were slain at the altar of Julius
+Cæsar, on the anniversary of his death, March 15, B. C. 40. Fulvia died
+in Greece, and a new agreement between the triumvirs, called the Peace of
+Brundisium, was sealed by the marriage of Antony with Octavia, the sister
+of the younger Cæsar.
+
+In the new division of the civilized world, Antony received the East;
+Octavian, Italy and Spain; and Lepidus, Africa. Sextus Pompey, whose
+fleets, commanding the sea, threatened the capital with famine, was
+admitted, next year, to a sort of partnership with the triumvirate, in
+which he received the islands of the western Mediterranean, on condition
+of his supplying Rome with grain. The conditions of this treaty were
+never fulfilled, and a two years’ war between Pompey and Octavian was
+the result. It was ended B. C. 36, by a great sea-fight off Nau´lochus.
+Agrippa, the intimate friend of Cæsar, routed the forces of Pompey, who
+fled in despair to Asia, and the following year was captured and put to
+death. His land forces, deserted by their leader, prevailed upon Lepidus
+to become their general, and declare war against Octavian. But the young
+Cæsar acted with an intrepidity worthy of his name. He went unarmed and
+almost alone into the camp of Lepidus, and by his eloquence persuaded
+them to desert their unworthy commander and be faithful to himself.
+
+=180.= Lepidus being degraded, the two remaining members of the
+triumvirate continued three years at the head of affairs. But an alliance
+so purely selfish could not be permanent. Antony neglected his noble
+wife for the enchantments of the Egyptian queen, on whom he bestowed
+Phœnicia, Cœle-Syria, and other dominions of Rome. He wasted the forces
+committed to him in expeditions which resulted only in loss and disgrace;
+and he laid aside the simple dignity of a Roman citizen for the arrogant
+ceremony of an Eastern monarch.
+
+In 32 B. C., war was declared against Cleopatra, and in September of
+the following year the forces of the two triumvirs met off Actium, in
+Acarnania. Antony had collected a vast fleet and army; but his officers,
+disgusted by his weak self-indulgence, were ready to be drawn over to the
+side of Octavian. Disheartened by many desertions, Antony took no active
+part in the battle, but while those of his forces who still faithfully
+adhered to him were fighting bravely in his defense, he drew off with a
+portion of his fleet, and followed Cleopatra to Egypt. His land army,
+after waiting a week for its fugitive commander, surrendered to Octavian.
+
+From this moment Cæsar was master of the Roman world. The final blow
+was given the next year in Egypt, where Antony was defeated before
+Alexandria, and deserted by his fleet and army. Cleopatra negotiated to
+betray him, but when she found that Octavian wanted to capture her, that
+she might adorn his triumph, she ended her life by the poison of an asp.
+Antony, in despair, had already killed himself, and Egypt became a Roman
+province. Octavian, returning to Rome the following year, celebrated a
+three-fold triumph, and the gates of Janus were closed the third time, in
+token of universal peace, B. C. 29.
+
+
+RECAPITULATION.
+
+    Cæsar crosses the Rubicon, and in three months becomes master
+    of Italy. He subdues the Pompeians in Spain, becomes dictator,
+    and afterward consul; pursues Pompey into Greece; is defeated
+    at Dyrrhachium, but victorious at Pharsalia, B. C. 48. Pompey
+    is slain in Egypt. Cæsar re-establishes Cleopatra under the
+    Roman protectorate; re-conquers Pontus; quells a mutiny in
+    his Gallic legions, and overthrows the Pompeians at Thapsus,
+    in Africa. He celebrates four triumphs at Rome; reforms
+    the calendar; finally crushes the Pompeians in Spain; is
+    invested with sovereign powers, and organizes a cosmopolitan
+    empire. On the eve of departure for Asia, he is murdered
+    in the Senate-house by sixty conspirators. Antony aims to
+    succeed him, but Octavian receives his inheritance. Antony,
+    Octavian, and Lepidus form the Second Triumvirate, B. C. 43.
+    In the proscription which follows, Cicero is killed. Brutus
+    and Cassius are defeated at Philippi, B. C. 42. A dispute in
+    the triumvirate is ended by the Peace of Brundisium, and the
+    marriage of Antony and Octavia. Lepidus is degraded from the
+    triumvirate, B. C. 35; the two remaining colleagues quarrel,
+    and the battle of Actium makes Octavian supreme ruler of the
+    empire, B. C. 31.
+
+
+III. THE ROMAN EMPIRE.
+
+=181.= FIRST PERIOD, B. C. 31-A. D. 192. The empire founded by Cæsar
+Octavianus was an absolute monarchy under the form of a republic. Many
+of the high offices, which had been borne by different persons, were
+now concentrated in one; but he declined the name dictator, which had
+been abused by Marius and Sulla, and was careful to be elected only for
+limited periods, and in the regular manner. The title Imperator, which he
+bore for life, had always belonged to generals of consular rank during
+the time of their command. The name Augustus, by which he is henceforth
+to be known, was a title of honor bestowed by the Senate, and made
+hereditary in his family. As chief, or “Prince of the Senate,” he had the
+right to introduce subjects for discussion; and as pontifex maximus, or
+high priest of the state, he had a controlling influence in all sacred
+affairs.
+
+He lived in the style of a wealthy senator in his house on the Palatine,
+walked abroad without retinue, and carefully avoided kingly pomp. The
+popular assemblies still appointed consuls, prætors, quæstors, ædiles,
+and tribunes, but the successful candidate was always recommended
+by the emperor, if he did not himself accept the appointment. These
+old-fashioned dignities were now little more than empty names, the real
+power having passed, under Augustus himself, to new officers, especially
+to the præfect of the city and the commander of the Prætorian Guard.[77]
+The people, meanwhile, were satisfied with liberal distributions of corn,
+wine, and oil, and amused by a constant succession of games.
+
+=182.= In seven centuries the Roman dominion had grown from the few
+acres on the Palatine Hill, to embrace the Mediterranean with all its
+coasts, from the Atlantic to the Euphrates, and from the African Desert
+to the Rhine, the Danube, and the Euxine. The twenty-seven provinces,
+reorganized by Augustus, were divided between himself and the Senate
+according to their condition. Those which were securely at peace were
+called Senatorial Provinces, and governed by proconsuls appointed by
+the legislative body; those which demanded the presence of an army were
+Imperial Provinces, and were managed either by the emperor in person or
+by his legates.
+
+The standing army, which maintained order in the entire empire,
+consisted, in the time of Augustus, of twenty-five legions, each legion
+numbering, in horse, foot, and artillery, a little less than 7,000 men.
+This force of 175,000 was distributed along the Rhine, the Danube,
+and the Euphrates, or in Britain, Spain, and Africa, according to the
+danger from the outer barbarians. While internal peace was maintained by
+the wise management of Augustus, the natural boundaries of the empire
+above mentioned were only gained and kept by active war. Northern and
+north-western Spain, the Alpine provinces of Rhætia and Vindelic´ia, and
+the Danubian countries Nor´icum, Panno´nia, and Mœ´sia, required almost
+unremitted warfare of more than twenty years, B. C. 12-A. D. 9.
+
+=183.= The Germans, east of the Rhine and north of the Danube, though
+often defeated, were never subdued. Drusus, a step-son of Augustus, was
+the first Roman general who descended the Rhine to the German Ocean. He
+built two bridges and more than fifty fortresses along the river, and
+imposed a tribute upon the Frisians north of its mouth. Drusus died in
+his third campaign, B. C. 9, and was succeeded by his brother Tiberius,
+who after many years, A. D. 4, seemed to have subdued the tribes between
+the Rhine and the Elbe.
+
+[Illustration: Coin of Drusus, twice the size of the original.]
+
+But his successor, Qu. Varus, attempted to establish the same arrogant
+and arbitrary rule which he had exercised over the slavish Syrians—a
+people crushed by nearly two thousand years of despotism, Assyrian,
+Egyptian, Persian, and Macedonian. The free-spirited Germans rose in
+revolt, under their princely leader, Armin´ius (Herman). Arminius had
+been educated at Rome, and had thoroughly learned the tactics of the
+legions; but Roman refinement never weakened his German fidelity to
+fatherland. Private wrong was now added to national oppression, and he
+deeply laid and firmly executed his plan for the destruction of the Roman
+army and the deliverance of Germany.
+
+=184.= Varus was enticed into the broken and difficult country of the
+Teutoberg´er Wald, at a season when heavy rains had increased the
+marshiness of the ground. Barricades of fallen trees blocked his way,
+and, in a narrow valley, a hail-storm of javelins burst upon his legions
+from the hosts of Arminius. On the next day the battle was renewed, and
+the Romans were literally destroyed, for all the captives were sacrificed
+upon the altars of the old German divinities. The garrisons throughout
+the country were put to the sword, and within a few weeks not a Roman
+foot remained on German soil.
+
+The news of the disaster struck Rome with terror. The superstitious
+believed that supernatural portents had accompanied the event. The temple
+of Mars was struck by a thunderbolt, comets blazed in the sky, and spears
+of fire darted from the northward into the prætorian camp. A statue of
+Victory, which had stood on the Italian frontier looking toward Germany,
+turned of its own accord and faced toward Rome. Augustus, in his grief,
+heightened by the weakness of old age, used for months to beat his head
+against the wall, exclaiming, “Quintilius Varus, give me back my legions!”
+
+By the revolt of Arminius, Germany was once and forever freed. Roman
+armies were led thither by Germanicus and the younger Drusus, but they
+gained no permanent advantages; and by the will of Augustus and the
+policy of his successors, the Rhine continued to be regarded as the
+frontier until, five centuries later, the tide of conquest turned in the
+other direction, and the Teutonic races divided the Roman Empire into the
+kingdoms of modern Europe.
+
+=185.= The reign of Augustus was a refreshing contrast to the century
+of revolution which had preceded it, for the security and prosperity
+that were felt throughout the empire. Commerce revived, agriculture
+was greatly improved, and the imperial city was adorned with temples,
+porticos, and other new and magnificent buildings. Augustus could truly
+boast that he “found Rome of brick and left it of marble.” A more lasting
+glory surrounds his name from the literary brilliancy of his court. Livy,
+the historian, and Virgil, Horace, Ovid, Tibul´lus, with other poets,
+enjoyed his patronage and celebrated his achievements; and in allusion
+to this, the brightest period of every nation’s literature is commonly
+called its “Augustan Age.” Augustus had no son, and his choice of an heir
+fell upon Tiberius, the son of his wife, Livia, by a former marriage.
+By the same arrangement, Germanicus, the son of Drusus, was adopted by
+Tiberius, and married to Agrippi´na, granddaughter of Augustus.
+
+=186.= In the 77th year of his age, Augustus closed his long and
+wonderfully prosperous reign of forty-five years, A. D. 14. The Senate
+and people submitted to his appointed successor. The army would more
+willingly have proclaimed its idolized general Germanicus, but the
+younger prince absolutely refused to sanction the act. Tiberius, so far
+from prizing his fidelity, never forgave his popularity; and the court
+soon understood that the surest way to gain the favor of the emperor was
+to ill-treat his adopted son.
+
+[Illustration: ROMAN FORUM, UNDER THE EMPERORS.
+
+_Temple of Juno Moneta._ _Tabularium, or Hall of Records._ _Temple of
+Concord._ _Temple of Jupiter Tonans._ _Temple of Saturn._ _Temple of
+Vespasian._ _Arch of Septimius Severus._ _Temple of Jupiter Capitolinus._
+_Julian Basilica._ _Arch of Tiberius._ _Milliarium and Rostra._ _Statue
+of Domitian._ _Mamertine Prison._]
+
+The policy of Tiberius was that of many another cowardly and suspicious
+tyrant. Conscious of his own unworthiness, either by birth or genius,
+of the high place he filled, he saw a rival in every possessor of great
+talent or even exalted virtue. He was afraid to call to his assistance
+the great patricians or the princes of the Julian house, and he regarded
+his own relations with unmingled jealousy. As he found it impossible,
+however, to administer alone all the world-embracing affairs of such an
+empire, he raised to the post of prætorian præfect a Volsinian knight,
+Seja´nus, whom he fancied too mean to be dangerous, but who became, in
+fact, the master of the whole dominion.
+
+=187.= Germanicus, meanwhile, conducted three campaigns, A. D. 14-17;
+and, after several disasters, gained some important victories over
+Arminius, between the Rhine and the Elbe. He was recalled A. D. 17, to
+receive the honor of a triumph, and was met, twenty miles from Rome, by
+an enthusiastic multitude which had poured forth to welcome him. He was,
+indeed, dangerously dear both to his legions and to the common people;
+and though he believed that in one year more he could complete the
+conquest of Germany, he was now transferred to another army and to the
+eastern wars. In his new command he settled the affairs of Armenia, and
+organized Cappadocia as a province; but he died A. D. 19, near Antioch in
+Syria, believing himself poisoned by Piso, a subordinate, who had been
+sent by the emperor with express orders to thwart and injure his chief.
+
+=188.= Drusus, the son of Tiberius, was poisoned by order of Sejanus,
+who had the boldness to request permission of the emperor to marry the
+widow of his victim. This was refused; but Tiberius, still blinded to the
+marvelous ambition of the wretch who ruled him, consented to retire to
+Capreæ, and leave Rome in the hands of Sejanus. His time was now given up
+to swinish excesses, while his worthless lieutenant maintained for five
+years a riot of misrule. His wicked schemes did not spare the best or
+noblest of the imperial family; but, at length, he perceived his master’s
+suspicion directed toward him, and prepared to anticipate the blow by
+assassinating Tiberius himself. His plot was discovered, and he was
+suddenly seized and executed, A. D. 31.
+
+The fall of this unworthy favorite took from Tiberius the only man whom
+he had ever trusted, and henceforth all were equally the objects of his
+fierce and cruel jealousy. Agrippina, the noble wife, as well as Nero,
+Drusus, and Livil´la, the unworthy sons and daughter of Germanicus, were
+put to death by his orders. Unlike Augustus, who scrupulously kept
+within the forms of law, he usurped the right to condemn without trial
+all who were obnoxious to him; and he extended the definition of treason
+to words and even thoughts. From his island retreat in the beautiful
+Bay of Naples, he issued destruction to men, women, and even innocent
+children who had the misfortune to be of sufficiently noble birth to
+attract his attention. It was a relief to the world when he died from
+illness, A. D. 37, at the age of seventy-eight.
+
+=189.= Tiberius had appointed no successor, but Senate, soldiers, and
+people united in the choice of Caius Cæsar, the only surviving son
+of Germanicus and Agrippina. In his childhood he had been the pet of
+the legions in Germany, and from the little military boots (_caligæ_)
+which he wore to please them, he acquired the nickname _Caligula_.
+This childish appellation is the name by which he is commonly known in
+history. Caligula was now twenty-six years of age, and was considered
+to be of a mild and generous disposition. The first months of his reign
+justified the impression. He released the prisoners and recalled the
+exiles of Tiberius, and he restored power to the regular magistrates and
+the popular assemblies. But his weak head was turned by the possession
+of absolute power, and of the enormous wealth hoarded by Tiberius. In
+unbounded self-indulgence, he extinguished the last spark of reason, and
+exerted his tremendous power only for mischief, and in the most wild and
+reckless manner. Choosing to be considered as a god, he built a temple to
+himself, under the name of Jupiter Latiaris; and so servile was Rome now
+become, that her noblest citizens purchased the honor of officiating as
+priests to this worthless divinity.
+
+The worst abuse of absolute power was shown in contempt for human life.
+When the supply of criminals for the public games was exhausted, the
+emperor ordered spectators, taken at random from the crowd, to be thrown
+to the beasts; and lest they should curse him in their last agonies,
+their tongues were first cut out. But this mad career of despotism worked
+its own destruction; for, in the fourth year of his reign, and the
+thirtieth of his age, Caius Cæsar was murdered by two of his guards.
+
+=190.= The Roman world being thus suddenly without a master, the
+prætorians took upon themselves to decide its fate. Finding Claudius,
+the uncle of Caligula, a weak and timid old man, hiding himself in the
+palace, they saluted him as emperor, and hurried him away to their camp,
+where he received the oaths of allegiance. Considered from childhood
+as lacking in intellect, Claudius had been treated by his relatives
+with a contempt, and by his servants with a harshness and cruelty,
+which only increased the natural irresoluteness of his character. Yet,
+though feeble, he was a good and honest man, and the evil wrought
+in his reign was the work of others. His infamous wife, Messali´na,
+gratified her jealousy and revenge at the expense of the noblest in the
+state, especially the imperial princesses, without even a show of legal
+formality. At last she was executed for her crimes, and the emperor
+procured a law from the Senate which enabled him to marry his niece,
+Agrippina.
+
+This princess appears to advantage only when compared with her
+predecessor. She recalled Seneca, the philosopher, from exile, and made
+him the tutor of her son, Nero. She protected many who were unjustly
+accused, and she advanced to power the faithful Burrhus, who proved a
+better servant, both to herself and her son, than either deserved. At
+the same time, Agrippina persuaded her husband to set aside his own
+son, Britan´nicus, in favor of her son by a former marriage. This youth
+bore his father’s name, L. Domitius Ahenobar´bus, but by the emperor’s
+adoption he became Nero Claudius Cæsar Drusus Germanicus. By the first of
+these names he is known in history as one of the most wicked of tyrants.
+Having gained all that she hoped from the weak compliance of Claudius,
+Agrippina poisoned him, and presented her son to the prætorian guards as
+their imperator. Some, it is said, cried out, “Where is Britannicus?” but
+there was no serious resistance, and the new emperor was accepted by the
+Senate, the people, and the provinces.
+
+=191.= For the first five years, under the wise and honest administration
+of Seneca and Burrhus, the Romans believed that the golden age had
+returned. Taxes were remitted; lands were allotted to the needy and
+deserving. The _delators_, that infamous class of people who made their
+living by accusing others of crime, were suppressed or banished. The
+Roman arms prospered in Armenia, under the able command of Cor´bulo, who
+captured the two capitals, Artax´ata and Tigranocerta, and completely
+subdued the kingdom. In Germany all was quiet, and the legions on the
+lower Rhine had leisure to complete the embankments which protected the
+land from inundation.
+
+None of this prosperity was due, however, to the character of Nero, who
+was a sensual and cruel tyrant even from his youth. In the second year
+of his reign he poisoned his foster-brother, Britannicus. A few years
+later, he murdered his mother, his wife, and the too faithful Burrhus,
+cast off the influence of Seneca, and thenceforth gave free course to his
+tyrannical caprices. He encouraged the informants again, and filled his
+treasury with the confiscated property of their victims.
+
+=192.= He persecuted both Jews and Christians, charging upon the latter
+the great fire at Rome, which he was more than suspected of having
+himself caused to be kindled. By this terrible conflagration, ten of the
+fourteen wards, or “regions,” of the city were made uninhabitable. Nero
+watched the burning from a tower on the Esquiline, while, in the dress of
+an actor, he chanted the “Sack of Troy.” Whether or not he had ordered
+the destruction of Rome in consequence of his disgust with its narrow and
+winding streets, he wisely availed himself of the opportunity to rebuild
+it in more regular and spacious proportions. The houses were constructed
+of stone, and rendered fire-proof; each was surrounded with balconies,
+and separated from other houses by lanes of considerable width, while a
+plentiful supply of water was introduced into every tenement.
+
+The palace of Nero having been destroyed, he built his Golden House on a
+scale of magnitude and splendor which Rome had never seen. The porticos
+which surrounded it were three miles in length; within their bounds were
+parks, gardens, and a lake which filled the valley afterward occupied
+by the Flavian Amphitheater. The chambers of this imperial mansion were
+gilded and inlaid with gems. The least of its ornaments, though probably
+the greatest of its objects, was a colossal statue of Nero himself, 120
+feet in height.
+
+=193.= Nero desired to be praised as a musician and a charioteer, and so
+far forgot his imperial dignity as to appear as an actor in the theaters.
+He gained prizes at the Olympic Games, A. D. 67, which had been delayed
+two years that he might be present. He took part, also, in the vocal
+performances at the Isthmian Games, on which occasion he ordered the
+death of a singer whose voice drowned his own. On his return, he entered
+Rome through a breach in the walls, after the ancient Hellenic custom;
+but the 1,800 garlands with which he had been laden by the servile
+Greeks, showed the decline of the old heroic spirit, rather than the
+glory of the victor.
+
+=194.= The impositions of Nero caused revolts in the provinces, and,
+among others, Vespasian, the future emperor, was sent to pacify Judæa.
+But Nero was jealous of his most able and faithful officers. Cor´bulo,
+the conqueror of Armenia, Rufus and Scribo´nius, the commanders in
+Germany, were recalled, and avoided public execution only by putting
+themselves to death. All the generals on the frontier perceived that they
+could escape a similar fate only by timely revolt, and insurrections
+broke out at once in Germany, Gaul, Africa, and Spain. The conspirators
+agreed, at length, in the choice of Galba, the governor of Hither Spain,
+as their leader and emperor.
+
+Nero perceived that resistance was hopeless. Deserted by the prætorians
+and all his courtiers, he fled from his Golden House and hid himself in
+the cottage of Phaon, his former slave, a few miles from the city. After
+spending a night and part of a day in an agony of terror, he summoned
+courage to end his own life, just as he heard the tramp of the horsemen
+who were coming to take him. He was but thirty years of age, and had
+reigned nearly fourteen years. With him expired the line of Augustus. The
+imperial power never again remained so long in any one family as it had
+among the members, by adoption or otherwise, of the Julian house.
+
+
+RECAPITULATION.
+
+    Augustus (B. C. 30-A. D. 14) combines in himself all the
+    dignities of the Republic, but carefully avoids the appearance
+    of royalty. He leaves the peaceful provinces to the Senate,
+    but assumes the command of those which are at war. The
+    Germans, under Arminius, revolt and destroy the legions of
+    Varus. The “Augustan Age” is distinguished for prosperity
+    and enlightenment. Tiberius (A. D. 14-37) succeeds Augustus,
+    but Sejanus rules the empire. Germanicus and many others are
+    persecuted and put to death. Caius Cæsar (Caligula, A. D.
+    37-41) begins well, but, soon spoiled by power, exhibits “the
+    awful spectacle of a madman, master of the civilized world.”
+    He is succeeded by his uncle Claudius (A. D. 41-54), a weak
+    but honest man. Agrippina, having poisoned him, makes her son
+    Nero emperor (A. D. 54-68). Upon the death of his instructors,
+    he proves a reckless and cruel tyrant. He rebuilds Rome with
+    unprecedented magnificence after the great fire. Having caused
+    the death of his best generals, he kills himself only in time
+    to escape the vengeance of his people.
+
+
+DECLINE OF THE EMPIRE.
+
+=195.= Galba, the most distinguished general of his time, had gained the
+favor of the emperor Claudius by refusing to assume the crown upon the
+death of Caligula. He had proved his ability and worth by his wise and
+just administration of the province of Africa, and had been honored at
+Rome with the highest dignities to which his patrician birth and eminent
+services entitled him. He was now more than seventy years of age, but
+learning that Nero had sent orders for his death, he resolved to rid the
+world of a tyrant by accepting the crown. He was a Roman of the ancient
+style, and the luxurious prætorians were equally disgusted with his
+strict discipline and his sparing distribution of money. By adopting
+Piso as his successor, he disappointed Otho, who easily raised a revolt
+against him, and the aged emperor and his adopted son were slain in the
+Forum, Jan. 15, A. D. 69.
+
+=196.= Otho, the early favorite of Nero, had for ten years been governor
+of Lusitania. He was acknowledged, on the death of Galba, by the Senate
+and most of the provinces, but the legions in Germany had already (Jan.
+3, 69) proclaimed their own general, Vitel´lius. The armies of the
+two generals met near the confluence of the Adda and the Po. Otho was
+defeated, and died by his own hand. Vitellius, having gained a crown by
+the skill and energy of his officers, lost it by his own unworthiness.
+Without the courage or ability of his predecessors, he surpassed them in
+contemptible self-indulgence. Vespasian, commander in Judæa, in revolting
+against this monster, was hailed by the acclamations of all good people,
+and supported by all the legions of the East. He took possession of
+Egypt, the grain-market of Rome, and sent his lieutenants into Italy.
+This time the generals of Vitellius were defeated on the Po, the capital
+was taken by assault, and the disgraced emperor put to death.
+
+=197.= During the reign of Vespasian, order and prosperity succeeded
+to the storms which had convulsed the empire. The old discipline was
+revived, the revenues were re-organized, the capital was beautified,
+and the people employed by the construction of such great works as the
+Coliseum and the Temple of Peace. The space inclosed by Nero for his own
+enjoyment, was thrown open by Vespasian to the use of the people; and the
+materials of the Golden House served to enrich many public buildings.
+The revolt of the Batavians and other tribes on the lower Rhine was
+suppressed, A. D. 70; the Jewish War of Independence was finally subdued,
+the Holy City taken, and the people dispersed. Agric´ola completed the
+subjugation of Britain as far as the Tyne and the Solway, which he
+connected by earthworks and a chain of forts.
+
+=198.= Titus, the son of Vespasian, having proved his military talent
+during the reign of his father, by the capture of Jerusalem, had been
+rewarded by a triumph, and by the title of Cæsar, which implied his
+association in the government. At the death of Vespasian, he became sole
+emperor without opposition. Whatever may have been his personal faults,
+Titus distinguished himself as a ruler by sincere and constant efforts to
+promote the happiness of his people. Recollecting, one evening, that he
+had performed no act of kindness, he exclaimed that he had lost a day.
+
+The circumstances of his reign made peculiar demands upon the emperor’s
+benevolence. The beautiful Campanian towns, Hercula´neum and Pompe´ii,
+were destroyed by a sudden eruption of Vesuvius. A fire raged again three
+days and nights at Rome, followed by a general and fatal pestilence.
+Titus assumed the pecuniary loss as his own, and even sold the ornaments
+of his palace to defray the expense of rebuilding the ruined houses. He
+established public baths on the site of Nero’s gardens on the Esquiline,
+and completed the Coliseum, or Flavian Amphitheater, which he dedicated
+by a festival of a hundred days, including combats of 5,000 wild beasts.
+After a reign of but little more than two years, Titus died of a fever,
+having named his brother as his successor, A. D. 81.
+
+=199.= Domitian was regarded by the people with more favor than he
+deserved, on account of the virtues of his father and brother. His nature
+was morose and jealous; and when his ill-success in military matters
+began to be contrasted with the victories of his predecessors, he became
+cruel and tyrannical, reviving the false accusations, forfeitures, and
+death-penalties of the reign of Nero. He was partially successful in his
+wars in Germany, but he was defeated on the Danube with great disaster,
+and even consented to pay an annual tribute to the Dacians, to keep them
+from invading Mœsia. When the cruelties of Domitian began to excite the
+fears of his servants, he was murdered, Sept. 18, A. D. 96.
+
+=200.= The Senate now asserted a power which it had failed to exercise
+since the days of Augustus, by naming Nerva as sovereign. He was a
+childless old man, but he chose for his successor M. Ul´pius Traja´nus, a
+general whose vigor and ability, already shown in war, promised well for
+the interests of the state. It was henceforth considered the duty of the
+emperor to select from all his subjects the man most fit to rule, without
+reference to his own family, and the heir thus adopted bore the name of
+Cæsar. The mild, beneficent, and economical government of Nerva afforded
+a pleasing contrast to the severe and sanguinary rule of Domitian. Upon
+his death, which occurred A. D. 98, his adopted heir was immediately
+recognized as emperor.
+
+=201.= Trajan was born in Spain, and his youth had been passed in
+military service. The Romans regarded him as the best of all their
+emperors. In personal character he was brave and generous, diligent
+and modest; in his policy as a ruler he was both wise and liberal. He
+scrupulously regarded the rights and dignities of the Senate, and treated
+its members as his equals. He was most diligent in hearing causes that
+were presented for his judgment, and in corresponding with the governors
+of provinces, who consulted him on all important affairs in their
+administration.
+
+He managed the finances so well, that, without oppressive taxes or
+unjust confiscations, he always had means for the construction of roads,
+bridges, and aqueducts; for loans to persons whose estates had been
+injured by earthquakes or tempests; and for public buildings in Rome and
+all the provinces. The Ulpian Library and the great “Forum of Trajan,”
+for the better transaction of public business, among many other useful
+and elegant works, bore witness to his liberality. The reign of Trajan
+was a literary epoch only second to that of Augustus. The great historian
+Tacitus, the younger Pliny, Plutarch, Sueto´nius, and Epicte´tus, the
+slave-philosopher, were all living at this time.
+
+=202.= Augustus had enjoined his heirs to regard the Rhine, the Danube,
+and the Euphrates as the limits of their dominion. Trajan, however,
+desiring to throw off the disgraceful tribute which Domitian had promised
+to the Dacians, made war twice against their king, Deceb´alus. He was
+completely victorious; the king was slain, and his country became a Roman
+province guarded by colonies and forts. On his return, A. D. 105, Trajan
+celebrated a triumph, and exhibited games during 123 days. It is said
+that 11,000 wild beasts were slaughtered in these spectacles, and that
+10,000 gladiators, mostly Dacian prisoners, killed each other “to make a
+Roman holiday.”
+
+In the later years of this reign, the Roman and the Parthian empires
+came into conflict for the control of Armenia. Trajan quickly reduced
+the latter country to a Roman province, and, in subsequent campaigns,
+he wrested from the Parthians the ancient countries of Mesopotamia and
+Assyria. Trajan died in Cilicia, A. D. 117. His ashes were conveyed to
+Rome in a golden urn, and placed under the column which bears his name.
+
+=203.= Ha´drian began his reign by surrendering the Asiatic conquests of
+Trajan. During the twenty years of almost unbroken peace which marked
+his administration, Hadrian visited the remotest corners of his empire,
+studied the wants and interests of his people, and tried impartially
+to secure the best good of all. York in England, Athens, Antioch, and
+Alexandria shared with Rome the honors of an imperial capital; and each
+had its part of those great architectural works which, in some cases,
+still exist to commemorate the glory of Hadrian. A revolt of the Jews,
+A. D. 131-135, was ended with the banishment from Palestine of the last
+remnants of their race. A Roman colony, Æ´lia Capitolina, was founded
+upon the site of Jerusalem, to which the Christians, expelled by Titus,
+were freely admitted with the first of their Gentile bishops. Of all the
+benefits which Hadrian conferred upon the empire, the greatest, perhaps,
+was his choice of a successor.
+
+=204.= T. Aurelius Antoni´nus came to the throne A. D. 138. His
+uneventful reign presents the rare example in Roman annals of
+twenty-three years’ undisturbed tranquillity, and is a striking example
+of the truth of the saying, “Happy is the people that has no history.”
+The happiness of his great family, for so he regarded his subjects, was
+the ruling purpose of his life. In Britain, the Roman boundary was pushed
+to its farthest northern limit during this reign, and guarded by the
+“Wall of Antoninus,” extending from the Frith of Forth to the Clyde.
+
+Marcus Aurelius, the nephew of Hadrian, who, together with L. Verus, had
+been adopted by Antoninus, assumed the latter’s name[78] with his crown.
+He resembled his adoptive father in his love of religion, justice, and
+peace; but his reign was far less happy, owing to calamities which were
+beyond his power to avert. The barbarians north of the Danube began to
+be crowded by a new and great immigration from the steppes of Asia.
+The Scythic hordes, broken up from their ancient seats, we know not by
+what impulse or necessity, had thrown themselves upon the Germans, and
+these were driven across the Roman frontier, even into Italy, which they
+ravaged as far as Aquilei´a, on the Adriatic. The two emperors proceeded
+against them. Verus died in the Venetian country A. D. 169, but Aurelius
+remained at his post on the Danube, summer and winter, for three years.
+He gained a great victory over the Quadi, A. D. 174. A sudden storm,
+occurring during the battle, decided the result. The pagans attributed it
+to an intervention of Jupiter Pluvius; but the Christians, to the prayers
+of Christian soldiers in the “Thundering Legion.”
+
+During the first years of the reign of Aurelius, the Parthians made a
+formidable attack upon the eastern provinces, destroyed an entire legion,
+and ravaged all Syria. The general Avidius Cassius, being sent against
+them as the lieutenant of Verus, more than made good the Roman losses,
+for he extended the boundary of the empire again to the Tigris. But after
+the death of Verus, Cassius was led to proclaim himself emperor, and
+gained possession of most of the Asiatic provinces. Before Aurelius could
+arrive in the East, the rebel chief was slain by his own officers, after
+a reign of three months. Aurelius caused his papers to be burnt without
+reading them, and suffered no man to be punished for his part in the
+rebellion.
+
+The elevation and self-control which distinguished the emperor were
+owing, in great measure, to the Stoic philosophy which he studied from
+his twelfth year. The only blot on his character is the persecution of
+the Christians, which was doubtless instigated by the harsh and arrogant
+Stoics who surrounded him. Justin Martyr at Rome, the venerable Polycarp
+at Smyrna, and multitudes of less illustrious disciples at Vienna and
+Lyons, suffered death for their fidelity to their religion, A. D.
+167-177. Marcus Aurelius died in Pannonia, A. D. 180.
+
+=205.= Deceived by the youthful promise of his only son, Aurelius had
+associated Com´modus with him in the government at the age of fifteen.
+If the young prince could have enjoyed many years of training under the
+wise and virtuous care of his father, he might indeed have become all
+that was hoped of him. But the untimely death of the good Aurelius left
+his son at seventeen a weak, self-indulgent youth, easily controled by
+worthless associates. For three years the government continued in the
+course which Aurelius had marked out for it. But, A. D. 183, a plot for
+the murder of Commodus was detected, and many senators were believed to
+be involved. His revengeful nature, stimulated by fear, now made him a
+monster of tyranny. His only use of imperial power was to issue warrants
+for the death of all whom he suspected. Vain of his strength and skill,
+he assumed the name of the Roman Hercules, and exhibited himself in the
+amphitheater as a marksman and gladiator. At last, some of the intended
+victims of his proscriptions avoided their own destruction by strangling
+him in his bed-chamber, after he had reigned twelve years and nine
+months, A. D. 192.
+
+=206.= The decline of the empire, which had been delayed by the Five Good
+Emperors—Nerva, Trajan, Hadrian, and the two Antonines—proceeded with
+frightful rapidity under Commodus. The armies in the provinces, tired
+of discipline, broke up into petty bands which robbed and murdered on
+their own account. One historian tells us that Peren´nis, the prætorian
+præfect, was deposed and slain, with his wife and children, upon the
+demand of 1,500 insurgent soldiers who had marched unresisted from
+Britain to Rome. Society was as thoroughly demoralized as the army.
+Except among the despised and persecuted Christians, purity of life was
+scarcely to be found. Poverty was creeping upon the nations through the
+decline of industry, but luxury and self-indulgence were more wildly
+excessive than ever.
+
+
+RECAPITULATION.
+
+    Galba (A. D. 68, 69) offends his guards by his strict economy,
+    and is murdered after seven months. Otho, three months emperor,
+    is defeated by Vitellius, who reigns from April to December,
+    A. D. 69. Vespasian (A. D. 69-79) restores peace, order, and
+    prosperity. In his reign Jerusalem is destroyed. The short but
+    beneficent reign of Titus (A. D. 79-81) is disturbed by great
+    calamities—earthquake, fire, and pestilence. Domitian (A. D.
+    81-96) is a gloomy tyrant, disgraced abroad and detested at
+    home. Nerva (A. D. 96-98) restores confidence, and chooses for
+    his successor Trajan (A. D. 98-117), who is called the best and
+    ablest of all the emperors. He gains victories north of the
+    Danube and east of the Euphrates, thus extending the empire
+    to the utmost limits which it ever attains. Hadrian (A. D.
+    117-138) visits every portion of his dominions, and diffuses
+    every-where the blessings of peace and good government.
+    Antoninus Pius (A. D. 138-161) enjoys a reign of unexampled
+    tranquillity. Marcus Aurelius (A. D. 161-180), though a
+    peaceful philosopher by choice, is involved by necessity in
+    many wars. He generously forgives the rebellion led by Cassius,
+    but permits a persecution of the Christians, at the instance
+    of the Stoics. Commodus (A. D. 180-193), exasperated by a plot
+    against his life, becomes a revengeful tyrant, and under his
+    reckless misrule all order, industry, and safety vanish from
+    the empire.
+
+
+SECOND PERIOD, A. D. 193-284.
+
+=207.= By their unchecked disorders, the soldiers had learned their
+power, and now assumed to set up and put down emperors at their will. The
+murderers of Commodus proceeded to the house of Per´tinax, præfect of the
+city, and offered him the crown. He was a good old man, one of the few
+surviving friends of Marcus Antoninus, and one to whose care the young
+prince Commodus had been committed. He reluctantly accepted the dangerous
+honor, and the result justified his fears. The economy and order which he
+attempted to introduce, disgusted equally the amusement-loving citizens
+and the turbulent and grasping soldiers. Pertinax was murdered in his own
+palace by the prætorians, March 28, A. D. 193, after a reign of less than
+three months. The guards now put up the imperial crown at public auction,
+and sold it to Did´ius Julia´nus, a wealthy senator, for $15,000,000. The
+Senate acknowledged him, and he reigned more than two months at Rome. But
+the armies in Britain, Pannonia, and Syria, not so much offended by the
+scandalous insolence as encouraged by the example of their comrades at
+the capital, set up their own leaders, Albi´nus, Seve´rus, and Niger, as
+emperors.
+
+=208.= Severus arrived first at Rome, gained over the prætorians by
+promises of donatives, and was acknowledged by the Senate. Julianus was
+deserted and slain in his palace. The first imperial act of Severus was
+to disarm the prætorians, and to banish them to a distance of 100 miles
+from the capital. He defeated his two rivals, the one at Cyzicus and
+Issus, and the other near Lyons (Lugdu´num), in Gaul; and by their death
+became undisputed master of the empire. Instead of the old prætorians,
+he garrisoned Rome with 40,000 troops chosen from the legions, and their
+chief, the prætorian præfect, became, next the sovereign, the most
+powerful person in the world; for, beside his military command, he had
+control of the public treasury, and great influence in the making and
+enforcing of the laws. Severus was an able and successful general. He
+extended the empire eastward by the capture of the Parthian capital,
+and the conquest of Adiabe´ne; and northward, by his wars against the
+Caledonians. He died at York, the Roman capital of Britain, A. D. 211,
+having reigned eighteen years.
+
+=209.= The two sons of Severus, Caracal´la and Geta, had been associated
+by their father in his imperial dignity, and reigned together a year
+after his death. Then their mutual hatred broke out afresh, and after a
+vain attempt to divide the empire between them, Caracalla murdered Geta
+in the arms of their mother. In the five years of his sole reign, he
+proved one of the worst tyrants that Rome had known. Under the pretext of
+exterminating the “friends of Geta,” he massacred 20,000 persons, some of
+whom were the most virtuous and illustrious in the empire. Goaded by his
+restless conscience, Caracalla then quitted Rome, and wandered through
+all the eastern and northern provinces, followed every-where by a track
+of poverty, desolation, and death. At last he plunged into a war with
+Parthia, in which he had some success; but before his second campaign
+he was murdered by Macri´nus, his prætorian præfect, whom the guards
+proclaimed emperor.
+
+=210.= Macrinus bestowed the title of Cæsar upon his son, and then
+hastened to follow up Caracalla’s victories over the Parthians. He
+encountered the Eastern monarch near Nis´ibis, and suffered a shameful
+defeat, which forced him to retire into Syria. The soldiers were now
+tired of their chosen imperator, whose severity of discipline was an
+unwelcome change from the reckless liberality of Caracalla. Julia Mæsa,
+sister-in-law of Severus, persuaded one division of the army to accept
+as their prince her grandson, Bassia´nus, whom she declared to be a son
+of Caracalla. He is more commonly called Elagab´alus, from the Syrian
+sun-god to whose priesthood he had been dedicated as a child. The wealth
+which Mæsa had hoarded during her residence at her sister’s court
+materially aided to convince the soldiers. A body of troops, sent to
+quell the insurrection, were also, in great measure, gained over to her
+wishes. A battle was fought near Antioch, in which Macrinus was defeated,
+and eventually slain, after a reign of fourteen months.
+
+=211.= Elagabalus, or his ministers, hastened to send a letter to the
+Senate, in which he loaded himself with all the high-sounding titles of
+Cæsar, Imperator, son of Antoninus, grandson of Severus, Pius, Felix,
+Augustus, etc. The Romans passively admitted his claims, and the Arval
+Brothers offered their annual vows for his health and safety under all
+these names. The Syrian boy, who, at the age of fourteen, found himself
+thus clothed with imperial honors, was the most contemptible of all the
+tyrants that ever afflicted the Roman world. His days and nights were
+given up to gluttonous feasting and loathsome excesses.
+
+The decorous and solemn rites of Roman religion were replaced by
+degrading sorceries, which were believed to be accompanied in secret by
+human sacrifices. The Syrian sun-god was placed above Jupiter Capitolinus
+himself, and all that was sacred or honorable in the eyes of the people
+became the object of insult and profanation. The emperor had been
+persuaded to confer the title of Cæsar on his cousin, Alexander Severus;
+but perceiving that this good prince soon surpassed him in the respect of
+the army, he sought to procure his death. A second attempt was fatal to
+Elagabalus. The prætorians murdered him and cast him into the Tiber.
+
+=212.= Alexander Severus, now in his seventeenth year, was acknowledged
+with joy by the soldiers and the Senate. His blameless life and lofty and
+beneficent aims present a bright, refreshing contrast to the long annals
+of Roman degradation. Purity and economy returned to public affairs; wise
+and virtuous men received the highest offices; the Senate was treated
+with a deference which belonged to its ancient dignity, rather than to
+its recent base compliance with the whims of the army. If the power of
+Alexander had been as great as his designs were pure, the world might
+have been benefited.
+
+A great revolution, about this time, changed the condition of Asia.
+The new Persian monarchy, under Artaxerxes, the grandson of Sassan,
+had overthrown the Parthian empire, and now aimed at the recovery of
+all the dominions of Darius Hystaspes. Artaxerxes actually sent an
+embassy to Alexander Severus, demanding the restitution to Persia of her
+ancient provinces between the Ægean and the Euphrates. The reply was a
+declaration of war. Alexander in person met the forces of Artaxerxes in
+the plain east of the Euphrates, and defeated them in a great battle, A.
+D. 232.
+
+Hearing that the Germans were plundering Gaul, he hastened to make peace
+and returned to Rome. The next year he set out for Germany; but before
+he could begin his military operations there, he was murdered by a
+small band of mutinous soldiers. The virtues of Alexander were largely
+owing to the watchful care of his mother, in guarding his childhood
+from the wickedness with which he was surrounded. The prince repaid her
+vigilance by the most dutiful and tender regard; and it is said that her
+over-cautious and economical policy, which led him to withhold gifts of
+money demanded by the army, occasioned his death.
+
+=213.= The ringleader of the mutiny was Max´imin, a Thracian peasant—a
+brutal and illiterate ruffian, yet with enough natural ability to cause
+him to be chosen emperor by his comrades. Three years this savage
+ruled the world, his only policy being hatred toward the noble and
+covetousness toward the rich; until the people of Africa, roused to fury
+by the extortions of his agents, revolted and crowned their proconsul,
+Gor´dian, and his son. The two Gordians were slain within a month; but
+the Senate supplied their place by two of its own number, and with
+unwonted spirit prepared for the defense of Italy. Maximin marched from
+his winter-quarters on the Danube, but he had advanced no farther than
+Aquileia when he was murdered in his tent by his own soldiers.
+
+=214.= Though the legions had destroyed the emperor of their choice,
+they had no intention of yielding to that of the Senate. They murdered
+Pupie´nus and Balbi´nus within six weeks of their triumph over Maximin,
+and bestowed the imperial robes upon a younger Gordian, the grandson of
+the former proconsul of Africa. This boy of twelve years was intended, of
+course, to be a mere tool of his ministers. Timesith´eus, the prætorian
+præfect, was an able officer, and, so long as he lived, vigorously upheld
+the imperial power against Persian assaults and African insurrections.
+He was succeeded in command by Philip the Arabian, who artfully procured
+the death of the young emperor, and assumed the purple himself. He wrote
+to the Senate that Gordian had died of disease, and requested that divine
+honors should be paid to his memory.
+
+=215.= Among the few events recorded of the five years (A. D. 244-249) of
+Philip’s reign, is the celebration of the “Secular Games” at Rome, upon
+the completion of a thousand years from the building of the city, April
+21, A. D. 248. Rival emperors were set up by the Syrians, and by the army
+in Mœsia and Pannonia. Decius, a senator, was sent by Philip to appease
+the latter. Their mock-emperor was already dead, but the soldiers,
+believing their guilt too great to be forgiven by Philip, thronged
+around Decius with tumultuous cries of “Death or the purple!” The loyal
+officer, with a hundred swords at his throat, was compelled to be
+crowned, and to consent to lead his rebellious army into Italy. He wrote
+to assure his master that he was only acting a part, and would resign his
+mock-sovereignty as soon as he could escape his troublesome subjects. But
+Philip did not believe these professions of loyalty. He marched to meet
+the insurgents at Verona, was defeated and slain, Sept., A. D. 249.
+
+=216.= The two years’ reign of Decius (A. D. 249-251) was marked by two
+widely different attempts to restore the ancient religion and morality of
+Rome—the revival of the censorship and the persecution of the Christians.
+It was deeply felt that the calamities of the empire were due to the
+corruption of its people. But the first measure produced no effect, while
+the second only aroused the evil passions of men, and occasioned untold
+misery. The bishops of Antioch, Jerusalem, and Rome became martyrs, and
+Alexandria was the scene of a frightful massacre. Another calamity,
+for which Decius was not responsible, was the first great incursion of
+the Goths, who ravaged the provinces of Mœsia and Thrace south of the
+Danube. Decius was defeated by them in A. D. 250; and the next year, in
+attempting to cut off their retreat, he lost his life in a great battle.
+
+=217.= Gallus, an able general, was crowned by the Senate, Hostilia´nus,
+the son of Decius, being associated with him in the imperial dignity.
+Calamities thickened; pestilence raged in Rome, and fresh swarms of
+barbarians, only encouraged by the successes of the Goths, and the sums
+of money which had been paid them as the price of peace, ravaged the
+Danubian provinces. Hostilianus died of the plague, and the distress
+of the people led them to unjust accusations of the emperor. Æmilianus
+having defeated an army of the invaders, was proclaimed as sovereign by
+his troops, and, marching into Italy, defeated Gallus and his son at
+Interam´na. Æmilian was acknowledged by the Senate, but his reign was
+short. Valerian, a noble and virtuous officer, had been sent by Gallus
+to bring the Gallic and German legions to his aid. He arrived too late
+to save his master, but he defeated Æmilian near the scene of his former
+victory, and himself received the allegiance of Senate and people.
+
+It was no enviable distinction, for the causes that were tending to
+the destruction of the empire were more numerous and fiercely active
+than ever. The Franks from the lower Rhine, the Aleman´ni from southern
+Germany, ravaged Italy, Gaul, and Spain, and even crossed the straits
+into Africa. The Goths had made themselves fleets from the forests of
+the Euxine, with which they devastated the coasts of Asia Minor and
+Greece, capturing and burning innumerable cities, among which were
+Cyzicus, Chalcedon, Ephesus, and even Corinth and Athens. The new Persian
+kingdom of the Sassanidæ had increased in power. Its second monarch,
+Sapor, conquered Armenia, and overran the Roman provinces in the East.
+He defeated and captured Valerian in a battle near the Euphrates, and
+gratified his pride by a spectacle which no monarch before had ever
+been able to exhibit—a Roman emperor, loaded with chains but clothed in
+purple, a perpetual captive at his court.
+
+The government being thus overwhelmed with calamities, various pretenders
+claimed the sovereignty of the several fragments of the empire. These
+adventurers were known in general as the “Thirty Tyrants.” Their reigns
+were usually too short or too insignificant to be worthy of mention.
+Palmyra continued to be the royal seat of Odena´tus, and after his
+death, of his widow, Zenob´ia, for ten years, A. D. 264-273, inclusive.
+Pos´thumus established a kingdom in Gaul, which lasted seventeen years.
+Valerian, before his disasters in the East, had associated with him, in
+the cares of empire, his son Gallie´nus; but that prince could attempt
+little more than the defense of Italy. Aure´olus, commanding on the upper
+Danube, assumed the imperial title and crossed the Alps. He was defeated
+by Gallienus, and besieged in Milan. Through his arts, Gallienus was
+slain by his own soldiers; but they conferred the purple on a more honest
+man and better general, whom the murdered prince had named in his dying
+moments. Milan was taken and Aureolus put to death.
+
+=218.= Though the Roman Empire seemed to be doomed to destruction,
+equally by disunion within and the attacks of barbarians from without,
+its final disruption was delayed by a succession of able emperors.
+Claudius, who succeeded Gallienus, A. D. 268, vanquished the Alemanni in
+Italy, and the Goths in Mœsia. Aurelian (A. D. 270-275) again routed the
+Goths in Pannonia; and then recalling the advice of Augustus, he ceded
+to the barbarians the provinces north of the Danube, removing the Roman
+inhabitants to Mœsia. He made a war against Zenobia, which ended in the
+capture of the “Queen of the East,” and the overthrow of her kingdom.
+A still more difficult enterprise awaited Aurelian in the west, where
+Tet´ricus, the last successor of Posthumus, had united Gaul, Spain, and
+Britain into one powerful monarchy. But he was conquered, and the empire
+was again established on the borders of the Atlantic, A. D. 274.
+
+Aurelian was about to turn his victorious arms against the Persians, when
+he was assassinated by several of his officers, owing to a plot formed
+by his secretary, Mnes´theus. The army, indignant at the crime, applied
+to the Senate for a new emperor, instead of permitting any general
+to seize the crown. The Senate, after six months’ hesitation, during
+which the soldiers respectfully waited, named M. Claudius Tac´itus, a
+senator of vast wealth and blameless character. He would gladly have
+declined the laborious and perilous position, on account of his age and
+infirmities; but the Senate insisted, and Tacitus was crowned. All the
+acts of his short reign were directed to the improvement of morals, and
+the establishment of law and order throughout the empire. He was called
+away to Asia Minor, where a troop of Goths, engaged by Aurelian to serve
+in his Eastern expedition, were committing disorders for want of pay.
+They were expelled; but Tacitus, enfeebled by old age, sank under the
+exertion, and he died two hundred days from his accession to the throne,
+A. D. 276.
+
+=219.= Florian, brother of Tacitus, assumed the purple at Rome, while
+the army in the East proclaimed Probus, their general. The soldiers of
+Florian, however, refused to fight their comrades, and, after three
+months, put their leader to death. Probus, thus undisputed master of the
+Roman world, was an able general and a wise and beneficent sovereign.
+He not only drove the Germans out of Gaul, subdued the Sarmatians, and
+terrified the Goths into peaceable behavior, but he provided for the
+security of his extended frontier by settling the border provinces with
+numerous colonies of barbarians, who, becoming civilized, made a barrier
+against further incursions of their countrymen. He wished, also, to
+improve waste lands by the draining of marshes and the planting of vines,
+and to employ in these works the dangerous leisure of his soldiers. But
+the legionaries did not share the thrifty policy of their emperor. They
+mutinied at Sir´mium, and by another murder ended the beneficent reign of
+Probus, A. D. 282.
+
+=220.= Carus, the prætorian præfect, was hailed as emperor by the army,
+and conferred the title of Cæsar on his two sons, Cari´nus and Nume´rian.
+Leaving the former to govern the West, Carus, with Numerian, turned
+toward the East; first gained a great victory over the Sarmatians in
+Illyricum, and then proceeded to overrun Mesopotamia, and capture the
+two great cities of Seleucia and Ctes´iphon. He had advanced beyond
+the Tigris, and seemed about to overthrow the Persian kingdom, when
+he suddenly died, whether by lightning, by disease, or by the dagger,
+historians are not agreed.
+
+His son Numerian yielded to the superstitious fears of his soldiers, and
+withdrew within the Roman boundaries. On the retreat he was murdered
+by his father-in-law, who was also prætorian præfect, and who hoped to
+conceal the crime until he could reap the fruits of it. But the army
+discovered the death of their beloved emperor, and set up Diocle´tian,
+the captain of the bodyguards, to avenge and succeed him.
+
+[Illustration: Coin of Diocletian, enlarged twice the size.]
+
+Carinus, meanwhile, reigning in the West, was dazzling the Roman world
+by expensive games, and insulting it by his profligacy. Hearing of the
+murder and usurpation, he marched with a large and well-disciplined army
+to meet Diocletian, and joined battle near Margus, in upper Mœsia. The
+Western troops were victorious, but Carinus, while leading the pursuit,
+was slain by one of his own officers. His followers came to an agreement
+with those of Diocletian, who was universally hailed as emperor.
+
+=221.= His accession began a new period in the empire, when the power of
+the sovereigns became more absolute, ceasing to be checked either by the
+lawful authority of the Senate or the insolence of the soldiers. During
+the ninety-two years which had elapsed since the death of Commodus, the
+legions had claimed the privilege, not only of raising to the imperial
+power whomsoever they might choose, but of removing the object of their
+choice whenever he ceased to content them. No general who desired to be
+emperor dared stint his donatives, or enforce the needful severity of
+discipline. But for the almost constant danger from barbarians without,
+the army, which was the real tyrant of the Roman world, might have
+already put an end to all order, peace, and civil government.
+
+
+RECAPITULATION.
+
+    Pertinax (A. D. 193) is crowned and murdered by the prætorians,
+    who then sell the throne to Julianus. Severus (A. D. 193-211)
+    buys the adhesion of the guards, and having gained the imperial
+    power, disarms and expels them. He enlarges his dominions
+    by conquests both in the east and west. Caracalla murders
+    his brother, and misgoverns the empire six years, A. D.
+    211-217. Macrinus (A. D. 217, 218) gains and loses his crown
+    by violence. Elagabalus (A. D. 218-222) introduces Syrian
+    manners and worship into Rome. He is succeeded by his cousin,
+    Alexander Severus (A. D. 222-235), who gains a great victory
+    over the new Persian empire of the Sassanidæ, but is afterward
+    slain in Germany during a mutiny of his troops. Maximin (A. D.
+    235-238), a Thracian, is set up, and in three years put down,
+    by his comrades in the army. The two Gordians reign less than
+    a month, Pupienus and Balbinus about six weeks, when a younger
+    Gordian (A. D. 238-244) is invested with the purple at the
+    age of twelve. He loses his life through the arts of Philip
+    the Arab, who becomes emperor, and celebrates, A. D. 248, the
+    thousandth year of the existence of Rome. Decius, being sent to
+    quell a revolt in Pannonia, is crowned by the soldiers, A. D.
+    249, and Philip is slain. Two great calamities mark the reign
+    of Decius: a persecution of Christians and an incursion of
+    Goths. Gallus (A. D. 251-253) is deposed by Æmilianus, who is
+    soon superseded by Valerian (A. D. 254-260). The whole empire
+    is overrun by Gothic and German invaders. Valerian, in his
+    wars in the East, is captured, and spends the last seven years
+    of his life at Sapor’s court. “Thirty Tyrants” spring up in
+    various parts of the empire. Gallienus reigns in Italy, first
+    with his father, Valerian, and afterward alone, A. D. 254-268.
+    He is slain through the management of a pretender, Aureolus,
+    but is succeeded by Claudius (A. D. 268-270), who defeats the
+    barbarians. Aurelian (A. D. 270-275) makes the Danube again the
+    northern boundary of the empire; subdues Zenobia in the east
+    and Tetricus in the west; is murdered on his way to Persia.
+    Tacitus (A. D. 275, 276), being appointed by the Senate, reigns
+    two hundred days. Florian, his brother, is deposed by his own
+    troops. Probus (A. D. 276-282) restores security by a wise
+    and energetic reign. Carus gains great victories in the East;
+    but after his sudden death, his son Numerian abandons his
+    conquests. Numerian is slain in the East, Carinus in the West,
+    and Diocletian becomes emperor.
+
+
+THIRD PERIOD, A. D. 284-395.
+
+=222.= Under the firm and wise policy of Diocletian, the Roman world
+entered upon a century of greater vigor and security. The empire being
+too large to be administered by a single head, Diocletian conferred
+equal power upon his friend and comrade Maxim´ian, with the title of
+Augustus. A few years later, two Cæsars, Gale´rius and Constan´tius, were
+added to the imperial college, each being associated, as adopted son and
+successor, with one of the emperors. To the Cæsars were assigned the more
+exposed provinces, which needed an active and vigilant administration,
+while the Augusti kept to themselves the old and settled portions of the
+empire. Constantius had Gaul, Spain, Britain, and the whole frontier of
+the Rhine; Galerius had Noricum, Pannonia, and Mœsia, with the defenses
+of the Danube; while Maximian governed Italy and Africa, and Diocletian
+retained for himself Thrace, Macedonia, Egypt, and the East. Though
+allotted thus to its several rulers, the empire was not divided. The four
+princes governed in consultation, and were equally honored in all parts
+of the realm.
+
+=223.= In A. D. 286, a naval chief, Carau´sius, being intrusted with a
+powerful fleet for the defense of the British and Gallic coasts against
+the Franks, gained over the troops in Britain, seized the island, and
+set up an independent government. He built new ships, and soon became
+master of the Western seas. Diocletian and Maximian, after vain attempts
+to break his power, were compelled to acknowledge him as their colleague
+in the empire, A. D. 287. Constantius, upon becoming Cæsar, made war, A.
+D. 292, upon this new Augustus; captured Boulogne after a long and severe
+siege, and was preparing to invade Britain, when Carausius was killed by
+his chief officer, Allec´tus.
+
+Constantius landed, three years later, in Britain, and by a battle near
+London recovered the island. He afterward drove the Alemanni out of Gaul,
+and settled his captives in colonies upon the lands depopulated by their
+ravages. At the same time, Maximian quelled a formidable revolt of the
+Moors in Africa; and Diocletian, by a siege of eight months, captured
+Alexandria, where a rival emperor had usurped the throne, and punished
+the rebellious city by a massacre in which many thousands perished. The
+Cæsar Galerius made war against the Persians for the recovery of Armenia,
+which they had taken from Tirida´tes, the vassal of Rome. He was defeated
+near Carrhæ, on the very scene of the overthrow of Crassus, more than
+three centuries before; but he retrieved this misfortune by a great
+victory over King Narses, followed by an advantageous peace.
+
+=224.= The system of Diocletian was thus effective and prosperous, as far
+as it concerned the foreign enemies of the state; but the expenses of
+four imperial courts, with the immense number of soldiers and officials,
+imposed heavy burdens upon the people. The wretched tax-payers were often
+tortured to enforce payments which they were unable to make. The civil
+wars of the preceding centuries had deprived extensive districts of
+inhabitants; and the productions of the earth and of human industry had
+ceased.
+
+=225.= The greatest blot upon the memory of Diocletian is the persecution
+of Christians in the last year of his reign. Every province and every
+great city of the empire had now heard the doctrines of Christ, and
+the church in Rome numbered 50,000 members. In an age of turbulence
+and corruption, Christians were every-where distinguished as the most
+orderly, industrious, loyal, and honest members of the community. Their
+refusal to worship the image of the emperor, which was an essential part
+of the Roman religion, had brought upon them several local persecutions,
+but none so widely extended and severe as that of Diocletian. The edict
+requiring uniformity of worship was issued A. D. 303. Instantly the cruel
+passions of the pagans were let loose from restraint. Innocent blood
+flowed in every province. Whoever had either malice or covetousness
+to indulge, had only to accuse his enemy of being a Christian, and
+to be rewarded with half the confiscated goods. In the extreme west,
+Constantius protected those of the “new religion,” but elsewhere there
+was no appeal from the atrocious cruelties sanctioned by courts of law.
+
+=226.= Of the many acts by which Diocletian abased the authority of the
+Senate, the most effective was the removal of the center of government
+from the ancient city on the Tiber. His own official residence was
+at Nicomedia; that of Maximian, at Milan; while Constantius held a
+provincial court at York, and Galerius at Sirmium, on the Savus. The
+Senate thus became the mere council of a provincial town. Imperial edicts
+took the place of the laws which had formerly received its sanction. The
+insolent prætorians were, at the same time, replaced by the “Jovian”
+and “Herculean Guards”; and their præfect, who had been a rival of the
+emperor, became merely an officer of the palace. Diocletian, however,
+celebrated the twentieth year of his reign, and his numerous victories,
+by a triumphal entry into Rome; and this was the last “triumph” which the
+ancient capital ever beheld.
+
+=227.= The next year, A. D. 305, Diocletian, worn out with the cares
+of empire, formally abdicated his power, and compelled Maximian to do
+the same. The two Cæsars now became Augusti, and two new candidates,
+Maximin and Severus, were appointed by Galerius to the former title. The
+legions in Britain were dissatisfied, however, by seeing the choice of
+a successor taken away from their own imperator; and upon the death of
+Constantius, A. D. 306, they immediately proclaimed Con´stantine, his
+son. He was acknowledged as Cæsar by Galerius, who conferred the rank of
+Augustus on Severus.
+
+But, the next year, Maxen´tius, son of Maximian, was declared emperor by
+the Senate and people of Rome, and his father resumed the purple, which
+he had unwillingly laid aside at the command of Diocletian. Severus,
+attempting to crush this insurrection, was taken captive at Ravenna, and
+privately put to death. Galerius now conferred the imperial dignity on
+Licinius, and for two years the Roman world was peaceably governed by
+six masters: Constantine, Maximian, and Maxentius in the West; Galerius,
+Maximin, and Licinius in the East.
+
+=228.= The peace was first broken by the dissensions of Maximian and
+his son. The elder emperor fled from Rome, and was well received by
+Constantine, who had married his daughter. Before long, however, Maximian
+entered again into plots with Maxentius for the ruin of Constantine;
+which becoming known to their intended victim, he returned promptly from
+his campaign on the Rhine, besieged his father-in-law in Massilia, and
+put him to death, A. D. 310. Galerius died the next year at Nicomedia,
+and the empire was again divided into four parts, of which Constantine
+ruled the extreme west; Maxentius, Italy and Africa; Licinius, Illyricum
+and Thrace; Maximin, Egypt and Asia.
+
+The cruel and rapacious character of Maxentius wearied out his subjects,
+who sent deputies from Rome, beseeching Constantine to come and be their
+sovereign. This great general had won the love of his followers, not
+less by his firm and successful dealings with the barbarians, than by
+his liberal protection of the Christians, whose virtues he esteemed, and
+whose rights of conscience he respected. On his march toward Italy, it is
+said that he beheld a vision. A flaming cross appeared in the heavens,
+bearing in Greek the inscription, “By this, conquer!” Thenceforth, the
+cross replaced the pagan symbols which had been carried at the head of
+the legions; and the omen, if such it was, was amply fulfilled.
+
+=229.= Constantine passed the Alps, A. D. 312, defeated the troops of
+Maxentius near Turin, captured Verona after an obstinate siege and
+battle, and encountered his rival in a final combat before the gates
+of Rome. In the battle of the Mil´vian Bridge, Maxentius was defeated
+and drowned. The following year, Maximin was defeated by Licinius, in
+a great battle at Heraclea, on the Propontis, and put an end to his
+life at Tarsus, in Cilicia. Constantine and Licinius, in a series of
+battles, divided the world between them. The river Strymon and the Ægean
+became the boundaries between the Eastern and Western empires. Two
+sons of Constantine and one of Licinius received the title of Cæsar.
+Crispus, on the Rhine, gained a victory over the Franks and Alemanni; and
+Constantine, on the Danube, executed a terrible vengeance upon the Goths,
+who had invaded the Roman territory.
+
+=230.= After seven years’ peace, war broke out between the emperors,
+in A. D. 322. Licinius was defeated near Hadriano´ple, besieged in
+Byzantium, and finally overthrown upon the Heights of Scuta´ri,
+overlooking the latter city. His death made Constantine the sole ruler
+of the civilized world. His great dominion received a new constitution
+suitable to its magnitude. The seat of government was fixed upon the
+confines of Europe and Asia, in the new and magnificent city bearing the
+emperor’s name, which he built upon the ruins of the Greek Byzantium.
+The whole empire was divided into four _præfectures_, which nearly
+corresponded to the dominions of the four emperors, A. D. 311. (§ 228.)
+Each præfecture was divided into _dioceses_, and each diocese into
+proconsular governments, or _presidencies_.
+
+This subdivision of the empire gave rise to three ranks of officials,
+somewhat resembling the nobility of modern Europe. The republican
+form of government, so ostentatiously cherished by Augustus, had now
+disappeared, and in its place was the elaborate ceremony of an Oriental
+court. Even the 10,000 spies, known as the “King’s Eyes,” were maintained
+as of old by Xerxes and Darius. A standing army of 645,000 men was kept
+upon the frontier; but as Roman citizens were now averse to military
+service, the legions were largely composed of barbarian mercenaries. The
+Franks, especially, had great importance, both in the court and camp of
+Constantine.
+
+=231.= The great event of this reign was the admission of Christianity
+as, in a certain sense, the religion of the state. The Edict of Milan, A.
+D. 313, guaranteed to the hitherto persecuted people perfect security and
+respect; that of A. D. 324 exhorted all subjects of the empire to follow
+the example of their sovereign, and become Christians. Heathenism was not
+yet proscribed. Constantine was pontifex maximus, and must, on certain
+occasions, have offered sacrifices to the fabulous gods of Rome. It was
+only in his last days that he received Christian baptism; but he presided
+in the first General Council of the Church at Nice, in Bithynia, A. D.
+325, to which he had convened bishops from all parts of the empire, to
+decide certain disputed matters of faith. Though he treated the assembled
+fathers with every mark of reverence, he refused to persecute Arius and
+his followers, the Alexandrian heretics, whom the Council condemned.
+
+=232.= Crispus, the eldest son of Constantine, who had been named Cæsar
+at the age of seventeen, was the idol of the people, but an object of
+jealousy to his father, who suspected him of treasonable designs. Whether
+the charges against him were true, we have no means of knowing. He was
+seized during the festivities in Rome, in honor of the twentieth year of
+his father’s reign, tried secretly, and put to death. The last years of
+Constantine were disturbed by fresh movements of the barbarians north of
+the Danube. The Sarmatians, being attacked by the Goths, implored the aid
+of the Romans. Constantine was defeated in one battle with the invaders,
+but in the next he was victorious, and 100,000 Goths, driven into the
+mountains, perished with cold and hunger. In the division of spoils, the
+Sarmatians were dissatisfied, and revenged themselves by making inroads
+upon the Roman dominions. In succeeding wars they were defeated and
+scattered; 300,000 were received as vassals of the empire, and settled in
+military colonies in Pannonia, Thrace, Macedonia, and Italy.
+
+=233.= Hoping to secure peace to the empire after his death, Constantine
+assigned its different parts to his three sons and two nephews, whom he
+had carefully educated for their great responsibilities. But his care was
+unavailing. Immediately upon his decease, A. D. 337, Constantius, his
+second son, being nearest, seized the capital, and ordered a massacre
+of all whose birth or power could give them any hopes of obtaining the
+sovereignty. Of his own relatives, only two cousins, Gallus and Julian,
+escaped. The three sons of Constantine then divided the empire between
+them. Constantine II., the eldest, received the capital, together with
+Gaul, Spain, and Britain; Constantius had Thrace and the East; Constans,
+Italy, Africa, and western Illyricum.
+
+The reign of Constantius was occupied by a disastrous war with Persia.
+The pagan Armenians revolted upon the death of their king, Tiridates—a
+“friend of the Romans,” who had established Christian worship in his
+dominions—and opened their gates to the Persians. The son of Tiridates
+sought the aid of Constantius, who succeeded in restoring the prince
+Chos´roes to his dominions. The fortress of Nisibis, which was esteemed
+the bulwark of the East, withstood three memorable sieges by the
+Persians; but the Roman armies were defeated in nine pitched battles,
+and the raids of the Persian cavalry extended even to the Mediterranean,
+where they captured and plundered Antioch.
+
+=234.= In the meanwhile, discord had broken out between the emperors in
+the West, and Constantine II., invading the dominions of his brother
+Constans, was defeated and slain near Aquileia. Constans seized his
+provinces, and reigned ten years (A. D. 340-350) over two-thirds of his
+father’s empire. Magnentius, an officer in Gaul, then assumed the purple,
+and Constans was slain. Constantius, recalled from his Persian wars,
+defeated Magnentius in a toilsome campaign on the Danube; received the
+submission of Rome and the Italian cities; and finally, by a great battle
+among the Cottian Alps, ended the rebellion with the life of the usurper,
+A. D. 353. Sixteen years after the death of the great Constantine, the
+empire was thus reunited under one sovereign. Gallus, the cousin of
+Constantius, had been taken from prison to receive the title of Cæsar
+and the government of the East. But he proved wholly unfit to rule; he
+treated with insult the embassador of his cousin, and even caused him to
+be murdered by the mob of Antioch. Gallus was thereupon recalled, and put
+to death at Pola, in Is´tria.
+
+
+RECAPITULATION.
+
+    Diocletian (A. D. 284-305) associates Maximian as “Augustus,”
+    and Galerius and Constantius as “Cæsars,” with himself in
+    the management of the empire. Constantius overthrows the
+    sovereignty of Carausius in Britain and northern Gaul. Galerius
+    gains victories in Asia; Diocletian, in Egypt; and Maximian, in
+    Africa. The new system is efficient abroad, but oppressive at
+    home. Christians are severely persecuted. Seat of government
+    removed from Rome. Diocletian and Maximian resign, A. D. 305.
+    Galerius (A. D. 305-311) and Constantius (A. D. 305, 306)
+    become emperors; Severus and Maximin, Cæsars. Constantine the
+    Great (A. D. 306-337), succeeding his father, Constantius,
+    eventually conquers Maximian, who has resumed the purple, and
+    Maxentius (A. D. 312), who has been proclaimed at Rome, and
+    reigns over the Western empire. Licinius (A. D. 307-323), after
+    the death of Galerius, conquers Maximin, and reigns east of the
+    Ægean. Constantine conquers Licinius, A. D. 323, and becomes
+    sole emperor. Fixes his court at Constantinople; reorganizes
+    the government; makes Christianity the religion of the state;
+    has wars with the Goths; and establishes military colonies of
+    Sarmatians within the bounds of the empire. After his death,
+    his three sons destroy their kinsmen, and divide the dominion
+    between them. While Constantius II. is at war with Persia, his
+    brother, Constantine II., is slain by Constans, who is himself
+    deposed, after ten years, by Magnentius. Constantius, returning
+    from the East, A. D. 350, defeats Magnentius, and reigns over
+    his father’s entire dominion, A. D. 353-361.
+
+
+EXTINCTION OF PAGANISM.
+
+=235.= Julian, the younger brother of Gallus, was permitted to pursue
+his favorite studies at Athens, until, A. D. 355, he was called to the
+court of Milan, dignified with the title of Cæsar, and intrusted with
+the government of Gaul. His conduct displayed great energy and talent.
+He severely defeated the Alemanni, in the battle of Strasbourg; drove
+the Franks from their castles on the Meuse; and in three invasions of
+Germany, liberated 20,000 Roman captives. He rebuilt the cities of Gaul
+which the barbarians had destroyed; adorned Paris, his winter residence,
+with a palace, theater, and baths; imported grain from Britain for the
+sustenance of the people; and protected agriculture, manufactures, and
+commerce.
+
+Constantius became jealous of his cousin’s fame, and sought to disarm
+and disgrace him, by ordering the greater part of the Gallic army to the
+East. Julian was preparing to send away his devoted followers, but the
+soldiers mutinied, proclaimed him emperor, and forced him to assume the
+purple robe. An embassy to Constantius was contemptuously dismissed; and
+Julian, after again chastising the Franks, and improving the defenses
+of the German frontier, set forth to decide the question by actual war.
+Penetrating the Black Forest as far as the Danube, he descended that
+river with a captured fleet, surprised Sirmium, and was received with
+acclamations by the people. He sent letters justifying his conduct to the
+principal cities of the empire, especially to the senates of Athens and
+Rome; and he was invested by the latter with the imperial titles which it
+alone could legally bestow. The sudden death of Constantius, at Tarsus,
+Nov., A. D. 361, ended the uncertainty. All Constantinople poured forth
+to welcome Julian, at a distance of sixty miles from the capital, and
+soldiers and people throughout the empire accepted him as their head.
+
+=236.= His first acts were to retrench the Oriental luxury of the palace,
+to punish the officers of Constantius who had oppressed the people, and
+to dismiss the 10,000 spies. A philosopher by choice, and an emperor
+only by compulsion, Julian prided himself upon the frugal simplicity of
+his habits, and professed himself merely the “servant of the Republic.”
+He is known in history by the unhappy name of “Julian the Apostate.”
+Incensed against the _Christian_ cousins who had murdered his entire
+family, he extended his hatred to the faith which they so unworthily
+professed. He publicly renounced Christianity, and placed himself and his
+empire under the protection of the “Immortal Gods.”
+
+To spite the Christians, he patronized the Jews, and attempted to rebuild
+their Temple at Jerusalem; but he was thwarted by balls of fire breaking
+out near the foundation, which made it impossible for the workmen to
+approach.[79] He excluded all Christians from the schools of grammar
+and rhetoric, hoping thus to degrade them in intellectual rank, and
+weaken them in controversy. He, however, disappointed the pagan zealots
+by proclaiming toleration to all parties. In the spring of A. D. 363,
+Julian departed with a great army for the East, where the ravages of the
+Persian king had for four years met with little resistance. He gained an
+important victory over the Persians at Ctesiphon, but in a subsequent
+skirmish he was mortally wounded, and died, June, A. D. 363, after a
+reign of only sixteen months.
+
+=237.= Jovian, the captain of the life-guards, was saluted as Augustus
+by the generals of Julian. He obtained peace with the Persian king by
+ceding the five provinces east of the Tigris, and then conducted a
+difficult retreat to the capital. The principal act of his reign was
+the re-establishment of Christian worship and of universal tolerance.
+He died, Feb., A. D. 364, after a reign of eight months. The civil
+and military officers of the empire met at Nicæa, and chose for their
+sovereign Valentin´ian, a Christian and a brave soldier, who had
+distinguished himself by service both on the Tigris and the Rhine. His
+brother Valens was made his colleague, with the command of the East,
+extending from the lower Danube to the boundaries of Persia.
+
+=238.= Valentinian fixed his capital at Milan, which alternated with
+Rheims and Treves as his headquarters. He signally defeated the Alemanni,
+and guarded the Rhine by a new series of forts. The coasts of western
+Europe now began to be overrun by piratical Saxons, while the Picts and
+Scots swept over all the cultivated fields of southern Britain, from the
+Wall of Antoninus to the coast of Kent. Theodo´sius, father of the future
+emperor of that name, led a veteran army to the relief of the Britons,
+and afterward gained among the Orkneys a great naval victory over the
+Saxons.
+
+Having defeated the Alemanni on the upper Danube, Theodosius was next
+sent into Africa to quell a revolt of the Moors and provincials, provoked
+by the extortions of Count Roma´nus. Firmus, the chief of the Moors, was
+as wily as Jugurtha, but Theodosius showed all the skill of Metellus or
+of Scipio. He imprisoned Romanus and restored order to the province; but
+he was rewarded only by unjust suspicions and a military execution, A. D.
+376. Valentinian was already dead (Nov., A. D. 375), and the ministers
+who surrounded his son disguised the truth to suit their own purposes.
+
+=239.= Valens, meanwhile reigning in the East, was far inferior to his
+brother in firmness and beneficence of character. At the beginning
+of his reign, Proco´pius, a kinsman of Julian, gained possession of
+Constantinople, and kept it several months as nominal emperor. He was
+captured at last, and suffered a cruel death in the camp of Valens. The
+great event of this period was the irruption of a new and terrible race
+of savages from northern Asia. The Huns were more hideous, cruel, and
+implacable than even the fiercest of the barbarians hitherto known to the
+Romans. The Great Wall, which still divides China from Mongolia, had been
+erected as a barrier against their inroads; but their attention was now
+turned to the westward, where the Goths, north of the Black Sea, were the
+first to feel their power.
+
+The great Gothic kingdom of Her´manric extended from the Danube and
+Euxine to the Baltic, and embraced many kindred tribes, of which
+the eastern or Ostro-Goths, and the western or Visi-Goths were most
+important. The former were conquered by the Huns; the latter besought
+permission from Valens to settle on the waste lands south of the Danube,
+and become subjects of the empire. Their request was granted, and a
+million of men, women, and children crossed the river. But the Roman
+commissioners who were charged with receiving and feeding this starving
+multitude, seized the opportunity to make their own fortunes, at the
+expense of their honor and of the safety of the empire.
+
+The Goths had been required to give up their arms, but they purchased of
+these officers permission to retain them. The food which was served to
+them was of the vilest quality and most extravagant price. Discontent
+broke out among the turbulent and armed host. The Gothic warriors marched
+upon Marcianop´olis, defeated the army which was sent to defend it, and
+laid waste all Thrace with fire and sword. Instead of pacifying the Goths
+by a just punishment of the offenders, and by pledges of justice for the
+future, Valens sent for aid to his nephew Gratian, and advanced with his
+army to fight with the barbarians. In a battle near Hadrianople he was
+slain, and two-thirds of his army perished, A. D. 378.
+
+=240.= Gratian, the son of Valentinian, had been three years emperor of
+the West, and now became sole sovereign of the dominions of Augustus.
+He chose, however, for a colleague, the general Theodosius, to whom he
+committed the empire of Valens, with the addition of the province of
+Illyricum. The youth of Gratian was adorned by a fair promise of all the
+virtues; but as soon as his excellent instructors left him, he proved
+himself weak and wholly unfit for command. Bad men gained and abused his
+confidence.
+
+Maximus, in Britain, revolted, and passed over into Gaul with an army.
+Instead of fighting, Gratian fled from Paris; his armies deserted to the
+enemy, and the fugitive emperor was overtaken and slain at Lyons, A. D.
+383. He had already, on his accession, shared the imperial dignity with
+his brother, Valentinian II., then only five years of age. Maximus, being
+in actual possession of the countries west of the Alps, was acknowledged
+by Theodosius, on condition of the young Valentinian being left in secure
+possession of Italy and Africa. The sovereign of Gaul, Spain, and Britain
+soon became strong enough to break his word. He invaded Italy, and the
+young emperor, with Justi´na his mother, fled to the court of Theodosius
+for protection. The emperor of the East marched to attack Maximus, whom
+he defeated and caused to be executed as a traitor, and established
+Valentinian II. in the sovereignty of the whole Western empire.
+
+=241.= The young sovereign of the West proved as weak as his brother.
+He fell under the control of an officer of his own, a Frank named
+Arbogas´tes; and when he attempted to shake off the yoke, the too
+powerful servant murdered his master and set up an emperor of his own
+choosing. Euge´nius reigned two years (A. D. 392-394), as the tool of
+Arbogastes; but Theodosius at length defeated his army near Aquileia, and
+put him to death.
+
+For four months the Roman world was united, for the last time, under
+one sovereign. Theodosius the Great well deserved the title by which he
+is known in history. His vigorous and prudent management changed the
+Goths from dangerous enemies into powerful friends. Great colonies of
+Visi-Goths were formed in Thrace, and of Ostro-Goths in Asia Minor; and
+40,000 of their warriors were employed in the armies of the emperor. If
+later monarchs had acted with the wisdom and firmness of Theodosius,
+these recruits might have added great strength to the then declining
+empire. They were, in fact, a chief occasion of its fall.
+
+=242.= This reign is marked by the extinction of the old pagan worship.
+The temples were destroyed, and all sacrifices or divinations forbidden.
+The Egyptians believed that Serapis would avenge any profanation of his
+temple at Alexandria; but when a soldier, climbing to the head of the
+colossal idol, smote its cheek with his battle-ax, the popular faith was
+shaken, and it was admitted that a god who could not defend himself
+was no longer to be worshiped. Arians and other Christian heretics were
+persecuted with scarcely less rigor than the pagans; for they were
+forbidden to preach, ordain ministers, or hold meetings for public
+worship. The penalties inflicted by Theodosius were nothing more than
+fines and civil disabilities; but his contemporary, Maximus, is said to
+have been the “first Christian prince who shed the blood of his Christian
+subjects for their religious opinions.”
+
+The power and dignity of the Church at this time is shown by the conduct
+of Ambro´sius, Archbishop of Milan. Theodosius had ordered a general
+massacre of the people of Thessalonica, as a punishment for a wanton
+tumult which had arisen in their circus, during which a Gothic general
+and several of his officers had been killed. Several thousands of
+persons, the innocent with the guilty, were slaughtered by barbarian
+troops sent thither for the purpose. When the emperor, who was then
+at Milan, went as usual to church, Ambrosius met him at the door, and
+refused to admit him to any of the offices of religion until he should
+publicly confess his guilt. The interdict continued eight months; but, at
+length, the master of the civilized world, in the garb of the humblest
+suppliant, implored pardon in the presence of all the congregation, and
+was restored, at Christmas, A. D. 390, to the communion of the Church.
+
+Before his death, Theodosius divided his great dominions between his two
+sons, giving the East to Arcadius, and the West to Hono´rius. The latter,
+who was only eleven years of age, was placed under the guardianship
+of the Vandal general Stil´icho, who had married a niece of the great
+emperor. Theodosius died at Milan, Jan. 17, A. D. 395.
+
+
+RECAPITULATION.
+
+    Julian administers Gaul and invades Germany with great energy
+    and success. He incurs the jealousy of his cousin, and is
+    declared emperor by his troops. Constantius dies, and Julian
+    (A. D. 361-363), now universally acknowledged, restores
+    paganism. He is killed in an Eastern campaign, and is succeeded
+    by Jovian, who withdraws west of the Tigris. On the death of
+    Jovian, A. D. 364, Valentinian (A. D. 364-375) is chosen by the
+    court and army, and assigns the Eastern empire to his brother
+    Valens. The general Theodosius gains important victories over
+    Saxons, Picts, Scots, and Moors. Procopius usurps for a time
+    the Eastern capital, and the empire is threatened by both Huns
+    and Goths. In war with the latter, Valens is slain. Gratian (A.
+    D. 375-383), son of Valentinian, confers the Eastern empire
+    upon the younger Theodosius (A. D. 379-395). He is himself
+    dethroned by Maximus, who becomes sovereign of Gaul, Spain,
+    and Britain, and even expels the brother of Gratian (A. D.
+    387) from Italy. Theodosius destroys Maximus, and restores
+    Valentinian II. as emperor of the West; but this young monarch
+    is soon murdered by Arbogastes. Eugenius reigns two years, A.
+    D. 392-394. Theodosius defeats him, and rules the united empire
+    four months. He conciliates the Goths; abolishes pagan rites;
+    persecutes heretics; does penance at Milan; divides the empire
+    between Arcadius and Honorius.
+
+
+FOURTH PERIOD, A. D. 395-476.
+
+=243.= The empire east of the Adriatic continued more than a thousand
+years from the accession of Arcadius, and its records belong to Mediæval
+History. From the death of the great Theodosius, the division of the
+two empires was complete. Rufi´nus, the minister of Arcadius, bore a
+mortal enmity to Stilicho, the guardian of Honorius; and for the sake of
+revenge, he let loose the Goths upon the Western empire. Al´aric, the
+Visi-Goth, was made master-general of the Eastern armies in Illyricum. At
+the same time, he was elected to be king of his own countrymen, and it is
+uncertain in which character he invaded Italy, A. D. 400-403. Honorius
+was driven from Milan, but Stilicho defeated the invader at Pollen´tia,
+and afterward at Verona, and persuaded him, by promises of lands for his
+followers, to withdraw from Italy.
+
+During the rejoicings at Rome on account of his retreat, an incident
+occurred which marks the progress of Christianity in the declining
+empire. Telem´achus, a monk, entered the arena of the Coliseum and
+attempted to separate the gladiators, protesting, in the name of Christ,
+against their inhuman combat. He was stoned to death by the crowd; but
+their remorse bestowed upon him the honors of a martyr; and the emperor,
+who was present, made a law abolishing forever the shedding of human
+blood for public sport.
+
+=244.= Honorius transferred his capital from Milan to the impregnable
+fortress among the marshes of Ravenna, which continued three centuries
+to be the seat of government for Italy. A fresh invasion from Germany,
+led by the pagan Radagai´sus, devastated western Italy. Gaul was, at
+the same time, overrun by a mingled horde of Vandals, Suevi, Alani, and
+Burgundians; and from that moment the Roman Empire may be said to have
+fallen in the countries beyond the Alps. The army in Britain revolted;
+and after electing and murdering two emperors, set up Constantine, who
+led them into Gaul, defeated the German invaders, passed into Spain, and
+established a kind of sovereignty over the three western countries of
+Europe.
+
+Meanwhile, Stilicho was disgraced and slain, through the intrigues of
+his enemy, Olympius. While the barbarian auxiliaries in his army were
+lamenting his death, they were enraged by a massacre of their wives and
+children, who had been kept as hostages in the various cities of Italy.
+This insane act of cruelty sealed the fate of Rome. The barbarians,
+freed from either the duty or necessity of obeying Honorius, flocked to
+the camp of Alaric, in Illyricum, and urged him to invade Italy. The
+Visi-Goth had injuries of his own to avenge. He passed the Alps and the
+Po, and, after a rapid march, pitched his camp upon the Tiber. Rome was
+reduced to starvation. Thousands died of famine, and thousands more
+from the pestilence which it occasioned. At length, Alaric accepted the
+terms offered by the Senate, and retired, upon the payment of an enormous
+ransom, A. D. 408.
+
+=245.= His brother-in-law, Adolphus, now joined him with a troop of Huns
+and Goths. Alaric offered peace to the court of Ravenna, on condition of
+receiving lands for his followers, between the Danube and the Adriatic.
+His demands being refused, he again marched upon Rome, and set up an
+emperor of his own choosing, in At´talus, præfect of the city. Ravenna
+was only saved from his attack by a reinforcement from Theodosius II.,
+now emperor of the East. Africa was likewise delivered by the vigilance
+of Count Herac´lian. But Alaric was soon tired of his puppet-king. He
+deposed him, and again sought peace with Honorius. The treaty failed
+through the ill-will of Sarus, a Goth in the imperial service, who was a
+bitter enemy and rival of Alaric.
+
+The king of the Visi-Goths now turned a third time, and with relentless
+rage, upon Rome. The Eternal City was taken, Aug. 10, A. D. 410, and
+for six days was given up to the horrible scenes of murder and pillage.
+Though greatly reduced in power, Rome had never lost her dignity, or
+the wealth of her old patrician houses. These were now ransacked; gold,
+jewels, and silken garments, Grecian sculptures and paintings, and
+the choicest spoils of conquered countries, brought home in triumph
+by ancestors of the present families, went to enrich the Gothic and
+Scythic hordes, who were so ignorant of the value of their plunder, that
+exquisite vases were often divided by a stroke of a battle-ax, and their
+fragments distributed among the common soldiers. Only the churches and
+their property were respected, for Alaric declared that he waged war with
+the Romans, and not with the apostles.
+
+=246.= At length the king of the Goths withdrew, laden with spoils, along
+the Appian Way, meditating the conquest of Sicily and Africa. Storms,
+however, destroyed his hastily constructed fleet, and a sudden death
+terminated his career of conquest. He was buried in the channel of the
+little river Busenti´nus, and his sepulcher was adorned by his followers
+with the treasures of Rome. Adolphus, his successor, made peace with
+Honorius, and received the hand of the imperial princess Placid´ia, who
+had been taken prisoner during the siege. Her bridal gifts consisted of
+the spoils of her country. Adolphus retired into Gaul, and then into
+Spain, where he founded the kingdom of the Visi-Goths, as a dependency
+upon the Western empire.
+
+Constantine was driven out of Spain, and captured at Arles, by
+Constantius, who was rewarded for his distinguished services by a
+marriage with Placidia, after the death of her Gothic husband, and by
+the imperial titles which he bore as the colleague of her brother. He
+reigned but seven months, and after his death Placidia quarreled with
+Honorius, and took refuge with her nephew at Constantinople. In a few
+months the emperor of the West ended a disgraceful reign of twenty-eight
+years, A. D. 423. John, his secretary, usurped the throne; but Theodosius
+II. sent a fleet and army to enforce the claims of his cousin, the son of
+Placidia, and the troops in Ravenna were easily persuaded to surrender
+their upstart emperor. John was beheaded at Aquileia, A. D. 425.
+
+=247.= Valentinian III. was a child of six years. The Western empire was
+therefore placed under the regency of his mother, Placidia, who continued
+to rule it for a quarter of a century, while the military command was
+held by Aë´tius and Boniface. Unhappily, these two generals were enemies.
+The malicious falsehoods of Aëtius led Boniface into rebellion, and lost
+Africa to the empire. Gen´seric, king of the Vandals in Spain, willingly
+accepted the invitation of Boniface, and crossed the straits with 50,000
+men. The Moors immediately joined his army; the Donatists[80] hailed him
+as their deliverer from persecution.
+
+Too late, Boniface discovered his mistake, and returned to his
+allegiance. All Roman Africa, except Carthage, Cirta, and Hippo Regius,
+had passed over to the Vandals. Forces were sent from Constantinople
+to aid those of Italy; but the combined armies were defeated, and
+Boniface was compelled to abandon Africa, taking with him all the Roman
+inhabitants who were able to leave. The countries on the Danube had been
+ceded to the Eastern empire, in return for the aid of Theodosius II., in
+placing Valentinian III. upon his throne. Britain, unprotected by the
+Roman armies, had thrown off her allegiance, and had for forty years no
+government except that of the clergy, the nobles, and the magistrates
+of the towns. The Goths were settled permanently in south-western Gaul;
+the Burgundians in the east, and the Franks in the north of the same
+country; and except a small tract in southern Gaul, the Western empire
+now included only Italy and the region of the western Alps.
+
+=248.= Aëtius defended the Gallic province against the Visi-Goths on one
+side, and the Franks on the other, until the latter called in a new and
+more terrible ally than all previous invaders, in At´tila, king of the
+Huns. This savage chief was known to the terror-stricken world of his
+time, as the Scourge of God. He had subdued to his authority all the
+barbarians between the Baltic and the Euxine, the Rhine and the Volga,
+and his army of 700,000 men was officered by a host of subject kings. He
+had been for nine years ravaging the Eastern empire to the very walls
+of Constantinople, and had only retired upon the promise of an enormous
+annual tribute, and the immediate payment of 6,000 pounds of gold. He now
+invaded Gaul, in behalf of a Frankish king who had been driven beyond the
+Rhine, and had sought his aid.
+
+Theod´oric, the son of Alaric, now king of the Visi-Goths, had allied
+himself with the Romans, and their united armies came up with Attila,
+just as he had effected the capture of Orleans by battering down its
+walls. The Hun instantly drew off his hordes from the plunder of the
+city, and retreated across the Seine to the plains about Chalons´, where
+his Scythian cavalry could operate to better advantage. Then followed
+one of the most memorable battles in the history of the world. The aged
+king Theodoric was slain, but the victory was gained by the valor of
+his subjects. Attila was driven to his circle of wagons, and only the
+darkness of night prevented the total destruction of his hosts.
+
+This was the last victory ever achieved in the name of the Western
+empire. It settled the great question, whether modern Europe should be
+Teuton or Tartar. The Goths were already Christian; their rude energy was
+well adapted to the laws and institutions of civilized life. The Huns
+were savage, heathen, destructive; mighty to ravage and desolate, but
+never, in their greatest power and wealth, known to build and organize
+a state. Most of what is admirable in European history would have been
+reversed by a different result of the battle of Chalons.
+
+=249.= Attila retreated beyond the Rhine. Two years later, he descended
+into north-eastern Italy, reduced Aquileia, Alti´num, Concordia, and
+Padua to heaps of ashes, and plundered Pavia and Milan. The fugitives
+from the old territory of the Veneti took refuge upon the hundred low
+islets at the head of the Adriatic, and laid, in poverty and industry,
+the foundations of the Republic of Venice. While he was diverted from
+his threatened march upon Rome, by the intercessions of Pope Leo,
+Attila suddenly died, and his kingdom fell to pieces even more rapidly
+than it had been built up. Two of his sons perished in battle. Irnac,
+the youngest, retired into Scythia. Valentinian showed his relief from
+apprehension by murdering Aëtius with his own hand. Having in many ways
+disgusted and offended his subjects, he was himself assassinated in
+March, A. D. 455.
+
+Maximus, his murderer, assumed the purple, but he continued in power less
+than three months. Eudox´ia, the widow of Valentinian, called in the aid
+of Genseric, the Vandal king of Africa, who, commanding the Mediterranean
+with his fleets, was only too eager for the spoils of Italy. The Romans,
+as soon as he had landed in Ostia, put to death their unworthy emperor;
+but this execution failed to appease the barbarian. Fourteen days the
+Eternal City was again given up to a pillage more unscrupulous than that
+of Alaric. The Vandal fleet, waiting at Ostia, was laden with all the
+wealth which the Goths had spared, and receiving on board the empress
+Eudoxia and her daughter, made a safe return to Carthage.
+
+=250.= The Romans were too much paralyzed to appoint a new sovereign.
+When the news reached Gaul, Avi´tus, the general of the armies there, was
+proclaimed, through the influence of Theodoric II., and was acknowledged
+for more than a year throughout the Western empire. But, A. D. 456, Count
+Ric´imer, a Goth commanding the foreign auxiliaries in Italy, rebelled,
+and captured Avitus in a battle near Placentia. He set up Marjo´rian,
+whose talents and virtues revived some appearance of justice and energy
+in the government. A fleet was now prepared for the invasion of Africa,
+in the hope not only of retaliating upon Genseric for his plunder of
+Rome, but of stopping the ravages of the Vandal pirates upon the coasts
+of Italy. It was betrayed to the emissaries of Genseric, in the Spanish
+port of Carthagena.
+
+Ricimer, by this time, was jealous of his _protégé_, and, forcing him
+to resign, set up a new puppet in the person of Lib´ius Severus, in
+whose name he hoped to exercise the real power. But the nominal rule
+of Severus was confined to Italy, while, beyond the Alps, two Roman
+generals—Marcellinus in Dalmatia, and Ægid´ius in Gaul—possessed the real
+sovereignty, though without the imperial titles. The coasts of Italy,
+Spain, and Greece were continually harassed by the Vandals, and Ricimer,
+two years after the death of Severus (A. D. 467), appealed to the court
+of Constantinople for aid against the common enemy, promising to accept
+any sovereign whom the emperor would appoint.
+
+=251.= Anthe´mius, a Byzantine nobleman, was designated as emperor
+of the West, and received the allegiance of the Senate, the people,
+and the barbarian troops. The fidelity of Count Ricimer was thought
+to be secured by his marriage with the daughter of the new emperor. A
+formidable attack upon the Vandals was made by the combined forces of the
+East and the West; but it failed through the weakness or treachery of
+Bas´ilis´cus, the Greek commander, who lost his immense fleet through the
+secret management of Genseric. The Vandals recovered Sardinia and became
+possessed of Sicily, whence they could ravage Italy more constantly than
+ever.
+
+The Goths, meanwhile, became dissatisfied with the foreign rule. Ricimer
+retired to Milan, where, in concert with his people, he openly revolted,
+marched with a Burgundian army to Rome, and forced the Senate to accept
+a new emperor in the person of Olyb´rius, A. D. 472. Anthemius was
+slain in the attack upon the city. Ricimer died forty days after his
+victory, bequeathing his power to his nephew, Gund´obald, a Burgundian.
+Olybrius died a month or two later, and Gundobald raised a soldier named
+Glyce´rius to the vacant throne. The emperor of the East interfered
+again, and appointed Julius Nepos—a nephew of Marcellinus of Dalmatia—who
+was accepted by the Romans and Gauls, Glycerius being consoled for the
+loss of his imperial titles by the safer and more peaceful dignity of
+Bishop of Salo´na.
+
+=252.= Scarcely was Julius invested with the insignia of his rank,
+when he was driven from the country by a new sedition led by Ores´tes,
+master-general of the armies, who placed upon the throne his own son,
+Romulus Augustus. This last of the Western emperors, who bore, by a
+curious coincidence, the names of the two founders of Rome and the
+empire, was more commonly called Augus´tulus, in burlesque of the
+imperial grandeur which mocked his youth and insignificance.
+
+The mercenaries demanded one-third of the lands of Italy as the reward
+of their services; and being refused, they sprang to arms again, slew
+Orestes, deposed Augustulus, and made their own chief, Odo´acer, king
+of Italy. The Roman Senate, in a letter to Zeno, emperor of the East,
+surrendered the claim of their country to imperial rank, consented to
+acknowledge Constantinople as the seat of government for the world,
+but requested that Odoacer, with the title of “Patrician,” should be
+intrusted with the diocese of Italy.
+
+With the fall of the Western empire, Ancient History ends. But the
+establishment of kingdoms by the northern nations marks the rise of a new
+era, which, through centuries of turbulence, will open into the varied
+and brilliant scenes of Modern History.
+
+
+RECAPITULATION.
+
+    Alaric, invading Italy, is defeated by Stilicho. Gladiatorial
+    combats are forever abolished at Rome. Honorius fixes his
+    capital at Ravenna. Italy and Gaul are overrun by a pagan
+    host. Constantine becomes emperor in the extreme West, A. D.
+    407-411. Death of Stilicho and massacre of Gothic women and
+    children lead Alaric to a second invasion of Italy, A. D.
+    408-410. Rome is three times besieged, and finally given up to
+    plunder for six days. Alaric dies, A. D. 410, and is succeeded
+    by Adolphus, who marries the sister of Honorius, and founds a
+    Gothic kingdom in Spain and southern Gaul. Constantius, second
+    husband of Placidia, reigns as colleague of Honorius, A. D.
+    421; and his son, Valentinian III., succeeds to the whole
+    Western empire, A. D. 425-455. During the regency of Placidia,
+    the general Boniface, deceived by Aëtius, betrays Africa to
+    the Vandals. Gaul is invaded by Attila, king of the Huns, who
+    is defeated by Goths and Romans near Chalons, A. D. 451. He
+    ravages northern Italy; and fugitives from cities which he
+    destroys, found Venice on the Adriatic, A. D. 452. Valentinian
+    III. is assassinated; and his widow, to avenge his death, calls
+    in the Vandals, who plunder Rome fourteen days. Avitus (A. D.
+    455, 456) is proclaimed emperor in Gaul. Count Ricimer rebels,
+    and sets up first Marjorian (A. D. 457-461), then Severus (A.
+    D. 461-465), and finally applies for an emperor to the Eastern
+    court, which appoints Anthemius (A. D. 467-472). Ricimer
+    revolts again, and crowns Olybrius, who dies in a few months.
+    Glycerius (A. D. 473, 474) soon exchanges the crown for a
+    miter, and Julius Nepos is installed as sovereign. Orestes sets
+    up his own son, Romulus Augustus (A. D. 475, 476), the last
+    Roman emperor of the West. Odoacer becomes king of Italy, and
+    the Western empire is overthrown.
+
+
+QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW.
+
+BOOK V.
+
+    1. What three successive forms of government in ancient Rome?     § 8.
+    2. What races inhabited Italy?                                   9-11.
+    3. Describe, severally, their origin, character, and institutions.
+    4. Relate the traditions concerning the origin of Rome.        12, 13.
+    5. Describe the acts and characters of the first three kings.   13-16.
+    6. What tribes and classes made up the Roman population under
+        Tullus Hostilius?                                              16.
+    7. What changes were made by Ancus Martius and Tarquinius
+        Priscus?                                                   17, 18.
+    8. Describe the constitution under Servius Tullius.             19-21.
+    9.          The reign of Tarquin the Proud.                        22.
+   10.          The chief divinities and religious festivals of
+                    the Romans.                                     23-25.
+   11.          The oracles and modes of divination.                26-28.
+   12.          The four sacred colleges.                           28-30.
+   13.          The ceremony of lustration.                            31.
+   14.          The government and condition of Rome after the
+                    expulsion of the kings.                         32-34.
+   15.          The causes and effects of the first secession.     35, 36.
+   16.          The Cassian, Publilian, Terentilian, and
+                    Hortensian laws.                   37, 40, 43, 46, 78.
+   17. Tell the story of Coriolanus.                                   42.
+   18.                Of Cincinnatus and his son.                  44, 45.
+   19. Describe the Laws of the Twelve Tables.                      46-48.
+   20. What occasioned the second secession?                        49-51.
+   21. What changes in government resulted from it?                 51-54.
+   22. Describe the Veientine War and its consequences.            56, 57.
+   23.          The invasion of Italy by the Gauls.                57, 58.
+   24.          The sack and siege of Rome.                        59, 60.
+   25.          The condition of the Romans after the departure
+                    of the Gauls.                                      61.
+   26.          The treason of Marcus Manlius.                     62, 63.
+   27.          The Licinian laws.                                 64, 65.
+   28.          The final expulsion of the Gauls.                      66.
+   29.          The character of the Samnites.                     67, 68.
+   30.          The First Samnite War.                                 69.
+   31. Relate the incidents of the Latin War.                       70-72.
+   32. Describe the Second Samnite War, and the reduction of
+        the Æqui.                                                   73-75.
+   33.          The Third Samnite War, and the conquest of
+                    the Sabines.                                    76-78.
+   34. What nations were allied against Rome, B. C. 283?           79, 80.
+   35. Describe the campaigns of Pyrrhus In Italy and Sicily.       81-85.
+   36. What changes among the Romans followed their conquest
+        of Italy?                                                  86, 87.
+   37. Describe the origin and events of the First Punic War.       89-94.
+   38. What part was taken by Rome in the affairs of Greece?           95.
+   39. Describe the conquest of the Gauls in northern Italy.      96, 112.
+   40.          The preparations by Carthage for the Second
+                    Punic War.                                      97-99.
+   41.          The invasion of Italy by Hannibal.                100-108.
+   42.          The fate of Hasdrubal.                           108, 107.
+   43.          A Roman triumph.                                  109-111.
+   44.          The wars of Rome in the East and West.      113, 114, 117.
+   45.          The last Punic War.                              115, 116.
+   46. Describe the conquest of Spain.                           118, 119.
+   47.          The condition of Rome after the foreign wars.    120, 121.
+   48.          The policy and death of Tiberius Gracchus.       122, 123.
+   49.                               Of Scipio Æmilianus. Of
+                                         Caius Gracchus.          124-127.
+   50.          The Jugurthine Wars.                              128-132.
+   51. Tell the history of Marius.                       130-136, 139-141.
+   52. Describe the Roman slave-code, and its effects in Sicily.      137.
+   53.          The dictatorship of Sulla.                        142-145.
+   54.          The rebellion of Sertorius.                      146, 147.
+   55.          The War of the Gladiators.                        148-150.
+   56. Relate the history of Pompey.                151-153, 155, 166-170.
+   57. Describe the conspiracy of Catiline.                           154.
+   58. Relate the history and designs of Cæsar.                   156-177.
+   59.                    Of the second triumvirate.              177-180.
+   60. Describe the three decisive battles of Pharsalia,
+        Philippi, and Actium.                               169, 179, 180.
+   61.          The city and empire of Rome under Augustus. 181, 182, 185.
+   62.          The Roman operations in Germany.                 183, 184.
+   63.          The reign of Tiberius.                            186-188.
+   64.                       Caligula.                                189.
+   65.                       Claudius.                                190.
+   66.                       Nero.                                191-194.
+   67. How many emperors during A. D. 69?                        195, 196.
+   68. Describe the reigns of Vespasian and his two sons.         197-199.
+   69.          The five good emperors.                           200-206.
+   70.          The reign of the prætorians.                          207.
+   71.          The history of Severus and his sons.             208, 209.
+   72.          The contrasted characters of the two grandsons
+                    of Julia Mæsa.                                210-212.
+   73. How many emperors in A. D. 238?                           213, 214.
+   74. Describe the reigns of Philip and Decius.                 215, 216.
+   75.          The condition of Rome under Gallus.                   217.
+   76. What foreign invaders under Valerian?                          217.
+   77. Describe the reign of the Thirty Tyrants.                      217.
+   78. What able rulers delayed the fall of the empire?          218, 219.
+   79.          Describe the reigns of Carus and his sons.            220.
+   80.          The new arrangement of the empire under Diocletian
+                    and his colleagues.                           221-227.
+   81.          The revolt of Carausius.                              223.
+   82.          The changes in the empire, from Diocletian’s
+                    abdication to the sole reign of Constantine.  227-230.
+   83.          The reorganization of the Roman world by Constantine. 230.
+   84. What change of religion marked this reign?                     231.
+   85. What foreign nations obtained settlements within
+        Roman boundaries?                                             232.
+   86. Tell the history of the sons of Constantine.                   234.
+   87. Describe the character and career of Julian.              235, 236.
+   88. Who succeeded Jovian?                                          237.
+   89. Describe the reign of Valentinian. Of Valens.             238, 239.
+   90.          The reign of Gratian and his brother.            240, 241.
+   91.          The character and reign of Theodosius the Great. 241, 242.
+   92. What was the comparative duration of the Eastern and
+        Western empires?                                              243.
+   93. What barbarians invaded Italy during the reign of
+        Honorius?                                                 243-246.
+   94. Tell the history of Placidia.                             246, 247.
+   95.          The extent of the Western empire under
+                    Valentinian III.                                  247.
+   96. Describe the career of Alaric, and the battle of Chalons. 248, 249.
+   97.          The successive captures of Rome by Goths
+                    and Vandals.                                 245, 249.
+   98. How many sovereigns appointed by Count Ricimer?           250, 251.
+   99. How many by the court at Constantinople?                       251.
+  100. Who was the last Roman emperor of the West?                    252.
+  101. How many centuries had Rome existed from its foundation?
+
+
+
+
+LIST OF BOOKS RECOMMENDED.
+
+
+_The following works are recommended to the student who desires a more
+complete account of the nations of antiquity._
+
+    Rawlinson’s History of the Five Great Monarchies of the Ancient
+    Eastern World.
+
+    Wilkinson’s Manners and Customs of the Ancient Egyptians.
+
+    Heeren’s Researches into the Politics, Commerce, etc., of the
+    Ancient World.
+
+    Niebuhr’s Lectures on Ancient History.
+
+    Layard’s Nineveh.
+
+    Milman’s History of the Jews.
+
+    Stanley’s History of the Jewish Church.
+
+    Josephus’s Jewish Antiquities.
+
+    Herodotus. (Rawlinson’s translation, with illustrative essays,
+    is incomparably the best.)
+
+    Xenophon’s Cyropædia, Anabasis, and Memorabilia.
+
+    Grote’s History of Greece.
+
+    Curtius’s History of Greece.
+
+    Dr. Wm. Smith’s History of Greece, in a single volume.
+
+    Bulwer’s Athens: its Rise and Fall.
+
+    St. John’s The Hellenes: the Manners and Customs of Ancient
+    Greece.
+
+    Creasy’s Fifteen Decisive Battles of the World.
+
+    Niebuhr’s History of Rome.
+
+    Arnold’s History of Rome.
+
+    Mommsen’s History of Rome.
+
+    Forsyth’s Life of Cicero.
+
+    Selections from Cicero’s Orations.
+
+    Cæsar’s Commentaries.
+
+    Life of Cæsar, by Napoleon III.
+
+    Merivale’s History of the Romans under the Empire.
+
+    Gibbon’s History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire.
+
+_Among Stories, Poems, and Dramas illustrative of Ancient History, the
+following are recommended—the first three especially to the youngest
+readers._
+
+    Kingsley’s “Heroes.”
+
+    Hawthorne’s “Wonder-book” and “Tanglewood Tales.”
+
+    Mrs. Child’s “Philothea.”
+
+    Becker’s “Charicles” and “Gallus.”
+
+    Macaulay’s “Lays of Ancient Rome.”
+
+    Ware’s “Zenobia,” “Julian,” and “Probus.”
+
+    Mrs. Charles’s “Victory of the Vanquished.”
+
+    Kingsley’s “Hypatia.”
+
+    Shakespeare’s “Coriolanus,” “Julius Cæsar,” and “Antony and
+    Cleopatra.”
+
+_Among collections of Engravings, the following should especially be
+sought._
+
+    “Description of Egypt,” made by the Commission of _savans_
+    who accompanied the French army in 1798. Commonly called
+    “Napoleon’s Egypt.” 9 vols. Text, and 14 folio vols. Plates.
+
+    Fergusson’s “Palaces of Nineveh and Persepolis Restored.”
+
+    Fergusson’s “Illustrated Handbook of Architecture.”
+
+    Botta’s “Monuments of Nineveh.”
+
+    Layard’s “Monuments of Nineveh.”
+
+    Penrose’s “Athenian Architecture.”
+
+    Stuart’s “Antiquities of Athens.”
+
+    Canina’s “Edifices of Ancient Rome.”
+
+
+
+
+FOOTNOTES
+
+
+[1] Scattered traditions of the same events have been found in several
+nations. The most remarkable were in the writings of Berosus (see note,
+p. 18), who, to his account of the Creation, added that the monstrous
+living creatures which had floated in the darkness of the primeval ocean
+perished at the appearance of light. These must have been the pre-adamite
+animals which Geology has made known to us only within the present
+century. Berosus describes a deluge, from which only righteous men were
+saved.
+
+[2] See Book III, §§ 35-37, 84-86.
+
+[3] Herodotus, the Father of History, was a Greek of Halicarnassus, a
+Doric city in Caria, and was born B. C. 484. He collected the materials
+for his works by extensive travels and laborious research.
+
+[4] Our word “shawl” belongs to the Sanskrit, the oldest known language
+of India, showing that “India shawls” have been objects of luxury and
+commerce from the earliest ages.
+
+[5] See p. 10, and Gen. xi: 1-9.
+
+[6] Berosus, a learned Babylonian, wrote a history of his own and
+neighboring countries in three books, which are unfortunately lost. He
+drew his information from records kept in the temple of Belus, from
+popular traditions, and in part, probably, from the Jewish Scriptures.
+Fragments have been preserved to us by later writers. He lived from the
+reign of Alexander, 356-323 B. C., to that of Antiochus II, 261-246 B. C.
+
+[7] The student’s memory may be aided by some explanation of the
+long names of the Assyrian kings. They resemble the Hebrew in their
+composition; and, as in that language, each may form a complete sentence.
+Of the two, three, or four distinct words which always compose a royal
+appellation, one is usually the name of a divinity. Thus, Tiglathi-nin =
+“Worship be to Nin” (the Assyrian Hercules); Tiglath-pileser = “Worship
+be to the Son of Zira;” Sargon = “The King is established;” Esar-haddon =
+“Asshur has given a brother.”
+
+[8] See § 32.
+
+[9] His daughter Jezebel became the wife of Ahab, king of Israel.
+His reign is marked in Phœnician annals by a drought which extended
+throughout Syria.
+
+[10] See p. 19.
+
+[11] See § 40, p. 23.
+
+[12] The battle of Carchemish. See p. 25.
+
+[13] He lived in the reign of Ptolemy I, B. C. 323-283.
+
+[14] See “Our Inheritance in the Great Pyramid,” by Prof. Piazzi Smyth.
+
+[15] See § 187.
+
+[16] Josephus was a Jewish historian, born A. D. 37, the son of a priest,
+and descended by his mother’s side from the same royal family with the
+Herods. His greatest work is his “Jewish Antiquities,” in twenty books.
+The history begins at the Creation of the World, and ends A. D. 66, with
+the Revolt of the Jews against the Romans.
+
+[17] See § 33.
+
+[18] See Genesis xlvii: 18-26.
+
+[19] The Phœnician name of Carthage signified the New City,
+distinguishing it either from the neighboring Utica, whose name meant the
+Old City, or from Byrsa, the first fortress of Dido. When New Carthage
+(Carthagena) was built upon the coast of Spain, the original settlement
+began to be called by the Romans _Carthago Vetus_, which is as if we
+should say “Old Newtown.”
+
+[20] See § 47.
+
+[21] See Book I, §§ 38, 41.
+
+[22] See Book I, § 59.
+
+[23] See Book I, §§ 53, 54.
+
+[24] The _Macro´bii_, so called by the Greeks because they were reputed
+to live 120 years or more, were a tribe of extraordinary strength and
+stature dwelling southward from Egypt. Some suppose them to have been
+ancestors of the Somauli, near Cape Guardafui, while others place them
+on the left bank of the Nile, in what is now Nubia. Their prisoners were
+said to be fettered with golden chains, because gold with them was more
+abundant and cheaper than iron. The bodies of their dead were inclosed in
+columns of glass or crystal.
+
+[25] See Book I, § 179.
+
+[26] See Book I, § 175.
+
+[27] See § 11. Also, Darius’s own account of the Imposture of the Magus,
+p. 87.
+
+[28] He was probably contemporary with Abraham.
+
+[29] See Esther i: 1-4.
+
+[30] One of these repasts cost half a million of dollars.
+
+[31] See pp. 142-144.
+
+[32] See note, p. 128.
+
+[33] See §§ 23, 25.
+
+[34] See note, p. 110.
+
+[35] Homer was an Asiatic Greek who lived probably about B. C. 850. Seven
+cities claimed the honor of his birth, which ancient critics commonly
+accorded to Chios, and modern, to Smyrna. Many legends describe his
+sorrowful and changeful life, shadowed by poverty and blindness; but
+we can be sure of little except that he was the author of some of the
+earliest and yet greatest poems in the world’s literature.
+
+[36] The word Erinnyes meant _curses_, and hence the angry or persecuting
+goddesses. Fearing to call these terrible beings by their real name,
+the Greeks substituted the term Eumenides, which meant _soothed_ or
+_benevolent_.
+
+[37] For a specimen, see §§ 108-9, 114.
+
+[38] My´us, Prie´ne, Eph´esus, Co´lophon, Leb´edos, Te´os, Er´ythræ,
+Clazom´enæ, Phocæ´a, Mile´tus, Chi´os, and Sa´mos.
+
+[39] See § 25.
+
+[40] Of the Seven Wise Men, six were rulers and statesmen. The seven
+were Solon of Athens, Periander of Corinth, Cleobulus of Lindus, Bias of
+Prie´ne, Pittacus of Mytilene, Thales of Miletus, and Chilo of Sparta.
+
+[41] See Book II, §§ 37, 39; Book III, §§ 99-102.
+
+[42] The Panathenaic festival was celebrated every year from the time
+of Theseus, in honor of Athena Polias, the guardian of the city. It
+included torch races, musical and gymnastic contests, horse, foot, and
+chariot races, and costly sacrifices. The greater Panathenæa took place
+in the third year of every Olympiad. It was distinguished by a sacred
+procession, bearing to her temple in the Erechtheum a crocus-colored
+garment embroidered with representations of the victories of the goddess.
+
+[43] See Book II, § 34.
+
+[44] Almost every Grecian state was divided between two parties, which
+preferred respectively _democracy_ and _oligarchy_; _i. e._, government
+by many and by few.
+
+[45] “The first Greeks,” says Herodotus, “who ever ran to meet a foe; the
+first, too, who beheld without dismay the garb and armor of the Medes,
+for hitherto in Greece the very name of Mede had excited terror.”
+
+[46] Read the movements of Datis after the battle, p. 86.
+
+[47] See p. 90, § 51.
+
+[48] See p. 93.
+
+[49] A small island in the Saronic Gulf, between Ægina and the coast of
+Argolis.
+
+[50] This exiled politician must not be confounded with Thucydides the
+great historian, who was living at the same time.
+
+[51] See note, p. 157.
+
+[52] The words of Xenophon, who was present in Athens.
+
+[53] The executioners who had put in effect the bloody sentences of the
+tyrants.
+
+[54] The god of healing, a son of Apollo.
+
+[55] Though an Athenian, Xenophon was an exile, and preferred the
+institutions of Sparta to those of his native city. Among the principal
+works of this historian are the _Anabasis_, an account of the
+rebellion of Cyrus the Younger, and the retreat of the Ten Thousand;
+the _Hellenica_, a history of the Greeks from the close of the period
+described by Thucydides to the battle of Mantinea, B. C. 362; the
+_Cyropædia_, an historical romance in praise of Cyrus the Great; and the
+_Memorabilia_, a defense of the memory of Socrates from the charge of
+irreligion.
+
+[56] See p. 163.
+
+[57] So called from one of the Athenian envoys, who, being hereditary
+_proxenus_ of Sparta (a term nearly corresponding to our modern
+_consul_), had a leading part in the negotiation. His personal character
+was worthless, and his influence slight.
+
+[58] Aristotle was a native of Stagi´ra, a Chalcidian sea-port. His
+father had been physician to Amyntas II., the father of Philip; and the
+prince and the philosopher in their boyhood formed a friendship, which
+outlasted the life of the former and was inherited by his son. The
+enlarged political views of Alexander, his fondness for discovery and
+physical science, his lively interest in literature, especially the poems
+of Homer, and his love of the noble and great in character, were largely
+due to his teacher’s influence. When he became the conqueror of Asia, he
+caused rare collections of plants and animals, from all his provinces, to
+be sent to Aristotle, who found in them the materials for valuable works
+on Natural History.
+
+[59] He is frequently called Ptolemy Lagi, from the name of his father,
+Lagus.
+
+[60] Brother of Philadelphus. (See § 55.)
+
+[61] Read, in the Apocrypha, 2 Maccabees iii: 4-40.
+
+[62] It should be noticed that the name Calabria is now applied to the
+other peninsula of southern Italy, that which included the ancient
+Bruttium. The name was changed about the eleventh century of the
+Christian Era.
+
+[63] A Patrician had at least three names: his own personal appellation,
+as Ca´ius, Marcus, or Lu´cius; the name of his clan, and the name of
+his family. Many Romans had a fourth name, derived from some personal
+peculiarity or memorable deed. Thus Pub´lius Corne´lius Scip´io
+Africa´nus belonged to the Cornelian _gens_, the Scipio family, and
+received a surname from his brilliant achievements in Africa. His clients
+bore the name Cornelius.
+
+[64] The name of the City of the Seven Mountains had been given to Rome
+when within much narrower limits. The _Septimontium_ included only the
+Palatine, Esquiline, and Cælian, which were divided into smaller peaks or
+eminences, seven in all.
+
+[65] At a later period, when the Romans had become familiar with the
+literature of the Greeks, an attempt was made to unite the mythologies
+of the two nations. Some deities, like Apollo, were directly borrowed
+from the Greeks; in other cases, some resemblance of office or character
+caused the Greek and the Roman divinities to be considered the same.
+Thus Jupiter was identified with Zeus; Minerva, the thinking goddess—the
+Etruscan _Menerfa_—with Athena, etc. By order of the Delphic oracle or of
+the Sibylline Books, living serpents, sacred to Æsculapius, were brought
+from Epidaurus to Rome, to avert a pestilence, B. C. 293.
+
+[66] For the probable form of this imprecation, see note, p. 276.
+
+[67] A _jugerum_ was very nearly five-eighths of an acre.
+
+[68] The form, which has been strictly preserved, may be of interest,
+as illustrating Roman ideas: “Thou Janus, thou Jupiter, thou Mara our
+father, thou Quirinus, thou Bellona; ye Lares, ye the nine gods, ye the
+gods of our fathers’ land, ye whose power disposes both of us and of our
+enemies, and ye also, gods of the dead, I pray you, I humbly beseech you
+… that ye would prosper the people of Rome and the Quirites with all
+might and victory, and that ye would visit the enemies of the people of
+Rome … with terror, dismay, and death. And according to these words which
+I have now spoken, so do I now, on the behalf of the commonwealth of the
+Roman people … on behalf of the army, both the legions and the foreign
+aids … devote the legions and the foreign aids of our enemies, along
+with myself, to the gods of the dead and to the grave.” It was deemed
+an impiety to ask for victory without making a sacrifice, for Nemesis
+avenged unmingled prosperity no less than crime.
+
+[69] _I. e._, to march between two spears planted in the ground and
+surmounted by a third. Hence, our term “subjugation” = _sub jugum ire._
+
+[70] The Mamertines, “Children of Mars,” were a troop of Italian
+freebooters, formerly in the pay of Syracuse, but who had seized Messa´na
+and other fortresses in the north-east of Sicily, massacred the people,
+and made themselves independent.
+
+[71] N. B. Not the great Hannibal, who was son of Hamilcar, and hero of
+the _Second_ Punic War. “Punic” is only another form of the adjective
+Phœnician, but is applied especially to the people of Carthage.
+
+[72] Son of the Regulus who invaded Africa (§ 91), and who fell a victim
+to Carthaginian vengeance.
+
+[73] During the seventeen years of the Second Punic War, the free
+citizens of Rome were diminished by one-fourth, and in Italy at large
+300,000 people perished.
+
+[74] This illustrious lady was a daughter of Scipio Africanus, the
+greatest general save one, and, perhaps, the greatest character, whom
+Rome ever produced. Cornelia, after the early death of her husband,
+devoted herself to the education of her children, and was rewarded for
+her care by their perfect respect and love. After the death of Caius, she
+retired to Misenum, where her house became the resort of all the genius
+and learning of the age. Cornelia not only spoke her own language with
+the utmost elegance, but was well acquainted with Greek literature, and
+her letters to her sons are considered the purest specimens of Latin
+prose. She died in a good old age, and the people erected a statue to
+her memory, with the simple inscription, “Cornelia, the Mother of the
+Gracchi.”
+
+[75] I came, I saw, I conquered.
+
+[76] That of Pope Gregory XIII., A. D. 1582.
+
+[77] This guard consisted of 10,000 Italian soldiers, quartered near Rome
+for the security of the emperor’s person. And so great was its influence,
+that, in the later days of the empire, it often assumed to dispose of the
+crown without reference to Senate or people.
+
+[78] Of the Antonines, the first is commonly called Antoninus Pius; the
+second, Marcus Antoninus.
+
+[79] So says Ammia´nus Marcelli´nus, an honest and usually trustworthy
+historian, contemporary with Julian, and probably a pagan.
+
+[80] A very numerous sect in Africa, opposed by Augustine, Bishop of
+Hippo, and by an edict of Honorius.
+
+
+
+
+INDEX.
+
+
+  A
+
+  Aahmes, Nefru-ari, 55.
+
+  Aa´ron, 40.
+
+  Abed´nego, 22.
+
+  Abi´jam, 42.
+
+  Abousir´, 52.
+
+  A´braham, 31.
+
+  Ab´salom, 38.
+
+  Aby´dus in Egypt, 53, 57.
+    in Mysia, 88, 89, 177.
+
+  Acade´mia, 150, 180.
+
+  Acan´thus, 188.
+
+  Ac´arna´nia, 106, 161.
+
+  Ac´cad, 17.
+
+  Acer´bas, 66.
+
+  Achæ´menes, 73.
+    brother of Xerxes, 88.
+    son of Xerxes, 93.
+
+  Achæ´us, 211.
+
+  Acha´ia, Acha´ians, 106, 115, 131, 161, 227, 229.
+
+  Achelo´us, 106.
+
+  Acrop´olis, 131, 140, 158.
+
+  Ac´tium, 105, 325.
+
+  Adher´bal, 299, 300.
+
+  Adiabe´ue, 339.
+
+  Adiman´tus, 140.
+
+  Adol´phus, 357.
+
+  Adoni´jah, 38.
+
+  Æge´an, 10, 105, 107, 109, 147, 148, 175, 179, 348.
+
+  Ægid´ius, 360.
+
+  Ægi´na, 91, 107, 137, 138, 155.
+
+  Æ´gos-Pot´ami, 179.
+
+  Æ´lla Capitoli´na, 336.
+
+  Æmilia´nus, emperor, 342.
+
+  Æmil´ius, 268.
+    L. Paulus, 289.
+    L. Paulus, son of the preceding, 228.
+
+  Æne´as, 249.
+
+  Ænia´nia, 106.
+
+  Æo´lia, Æo´lians, 108, 115, 131.
+
+  Æqui, 263-265, 277.
+
+  Æs´chines, 197.
+
+  Æs´chylus, 141.
+
+  Aë´tius, 358, 359.
+
+  Æto´lia, Æto´lians, 106, 226, 227, 293.
+
+  Africa, 48-70, 332, 333, 341, 342, 346, 348, 353, 357, 358.
+
+  Agamem´non, 109.
+
+  Age´nor, 110.
+
+  Agesila´us, 184-187, 190-195.
+
+  A´gis, 165, 166, 169, 173.
+
+  Ag´ni, 81.
+
+  Agric´ola, 334.
+
+  Agrigen´tum, 67, 133, 284.
+
+  Agrip´pa, 241, 325.
+
+  Ag´rippi´na, wife of Germanicus, 328, 330.
+
+  Ag´rippi´na, wife of Claudius, 331.
+
+  A´hab, 32, 40, 42.
+
+  Ahasue´rus, 88.
+
+  A´haz, 43.
+
+  Ahazi´ah, 42.
+
+  Ahriman´, 82.
+
+  Ahu´ro Maz´dao, (Ormazd), 81, 82.
+
+  Aix, 298, 302.
+
+  Alani, 356.
+
+  Al´aric, 356, 357.
+
+  Alba Longa, 250.
+
+  Albi´nus, 338.
+
+  Alcæ´us, 131.
+
+  Alcibi´ades, 168-172, 175-178, 269.
+
+  Alci´das, 165.
+
+  Alemæon´ids, 129, 136.
+
+  Aleman´ni, 342, 346, 348, 351-353.
+
+  Ale´ria, 284.
+
+  Alexan´der Balas, 213, 214, 220.
+    of Epirus, 276.
+    Jannæus, 239.
+    I. of Macedon, 142.
+    the Great, 16, 99-102, 202-206, 217.
+
+  Alexan´der of Phe´ræ, 193, 194.
+    Seve´rus, 340, 341.
+
+  Alexan´dra, 239.
+
+  Al´exandri´a in Egypt, 55, 204, 216, 217, 336, 342, 346.
+
+  Al´exandri´a on the Jaxartes, 204.
+
+  Allec´tus, 346.
+
+  Al´lia, 270.
+
+  Alps, 245, 288, 302, 348.
+
+  Alti´num, 359.
+
+  Alyat´tes, 23.
+
+  Am´alekites, 37.
+
+  Ama´sis, 25, 60, 133.
+
+  Amazi´ah, 42.
+
+  Ambra´cia, 161.
+
+  Ambro´sius, 355.
+
+  Ameneph´thes, 57.
+
+  Amenophe´um, 56.
+
+  Ammenemes III., 54.
+
+  Am´monites, 35-37.
+
+  Am´on, 43.
+
+  Amo´sis, 55, 62.
+
+  Amphip´olis, 168, 196, 201.
+
+  Amu´lius, 249.
+
+  Am´un, 58, 60, 63, 64, 77, 204.
+
+  Am´unoph III., 56.
+
+  Amy´clæ, 118, 121.
+
+  Amyn´tas, 188, 193.
+    I., 201.
+
+  Amyrtæ´us, 93.
+
+  Amy´tis, 93.
+
+  Anac´reon, 131.
+
+  Anacto´ria, 161.
+
+  Ana´pus, 172.
+
+  Anato´lia, 14, 29.
+
+  Anaxag´oras, 152.
+
+  A´nio, 249.
+
+  An´nius, 308.
+
+  Antal´cidas, 97, 187, 193.
+
+  Anthe´mius, 360.
+
+  Antig´onus, 207, 208.
+    Doson, 225, 226.
+    Gonatas, 224, 225.
+
+  Antig´onus, King of the Jews, 239.
+
+  An´tioch, 210, 336, 340, 350.
+
+  Anti´ochus I., Soter, 210, 224, 230.
+    II., Theos, 211.
+    III., the Great, 211-213, 237, 293.
+    IV., Epiph´anes, 213, 238.
+    V., Eu´pator, 213.
+    VI., 214.
+    VII., Side´tes, 214.
+    VIII., Grypus, 214, 215.
+    IX., Cyzice´nus, 214.
+    X., Eusebes, 215.
+    XI., 215.
+    XII., 215.
+    XIII., Asiaticus, 215.
+    Hierax, 211, 230.
+
+  Antip´ater, Regent of Macedonia, 207, 222.
+
+  Antipater, King of Macedonia, 223, 224.
+
+  Antipater, the Idumæan, 239.
+
+  Antiph´ilus, 217.
+
+  Antoni´nus, M. Aurelius, 336, 337.
+    T. Aurelius, 336, 337.
+
+  Anto´nius, 312.
+    Marcus, 221, 317, 323, 325.
+    Lucius, 324.
+
+  Apame´a, 210.
+
+  Apel´les, 217.
+
+  Ap´ennines, 245-247, 288.
+
+  Aphrodi´te, 111, 170.
+
+  A´pis, 63, 77.
+
+  Apol´lo, 91, 111, 114, 134.
+
+  Apollo´nia, 188, 226.
+
+  Apollo´nius, 217.
+
+  Ap´ries, 45, 60.
+
+  Apu´lia, Apulians, 247, 278, 304.
+
+  A’quæ Sextiæ (Aix), 297.
+
+  Aquile´ia, 350, 354, 358, 359.
+
+  Ara´bia, Arabians, 15, 19, 20, 42, 54, 56.
+
+  Ar´adus, 30.
+
+  Arama´ti, 81.
+
+  Ar´arat, 14, 29.
+
+  Arbe´la, 100, 101, 204.
+
+  Arbogas´tes, 354.
+
+  Arca´dia, Arcadians, 106, 121-123, 192-194.
+
+  Arca´dius, 355.
+
+  Ar´chela´us I. of Macedon, 201.
+    of Cappadocia, 234.
+    son of Herod, 241.
+
+  Ar´chias, 189.
+
+  Archida´mus, 151, 161-163.
+
+  Archime´des, 289.
+
+  A´res, 111, 138.
+
+  Argilius, 148.
+
+  Ar´golis, 106.
+
+  Argos, 97, 108, 118, 121, 123, 138, 161, 169, 192.
+
+  Ariara´thes IV., V., VI., 234.
+
+  Ariobarza´nes I., 234.
+
+  Ariovis´tus, 315.
+
+  Aristag´oras, 84.
+
+  Aristar´chus, 217.
+
+  Aristi´des, 86, 136.
+
+  Aristobu´lus, son of Hyrcanus, 239, 313.
+
+  Aristobu´lus, brother-in-law of Herod, 240.
+
+  Aristode´mus, the Heraclid, 114, 115.
+
+  Aristode´mus, of Messenia, 122.
+    of Sparta, 144.
+
+  Aristogi´ton, 129.
+
+  Aristom´enes, 122, 151.
+
+  Aristoni´cus, 231.
+
+  Aristoph´anes, 217.
+
+  Ar´istot´le, 202.
+
+  Arius, Arians, 349, 354.
+
+  Arme´nia, Armenians, 14, 19, 20, 232, 234, 235, 332, 336, 342, 346, 350.
+
+  Armin´ius, Herman, 327, 328.
+
+  Arsa´ces II., 211.
+    III., 212.
+    VI., 236.
+
+  Arsac´idæ, 236.
+
+  Ar´ses, 98, 99.
+
+  Arsin´oë, Crocododilopolis, 63.
+    port on the Red Sea, 218.
+    sister of Ptolemy II., 218.
+    sister of Ptolemy IV., 219.
+
+  Arre´tium, 279, 288.
+
+  Arsi´tes, 99.
+
+  Artaba´nus, 92.
+
+  Ar´tabaza´nes, 88.
+
+  Artaba´zus, 98, 196.
+
+  Artapher´nes, satrap, 85.
+    nephew of Darius, 85, 134.
+
+  Ar´taxerx´es I., Longim´anus, 82, 92-94.
+    II., Mnemon, 96-98, 187, 193.
+    III., Ochus, 98.
+    founder of the Sassanidæ, 340.
+
+  Artax´ias, 235.
+
+  Ar´temis, 111, 134, 173, 202.
+
+  A´sa, 40, 42, 58.
+
+  As´culum, 281.
+
+  Asia, 13-17, 48, 298.
+
+  Asia Minor, 14, 20, 29, 74, 203, 208, 212, 218, 233, 306, 342, 343.
+
+  As´kalon, 44, 60.
+
+  Aspami´tres, 92.
+
+  Assarana´dius, 20.
+
+  As´shur-ba´ni-pal, 20, 21, 59.
+
+  As´shur-da´nin-il II., 19.
+
+  As´shur-emid-ilin, 21.
+
+  As´shur-likh-khus, 19.
+
+  Asshur-nazir-pal I., 19, 40.
+
+  Assyr´ia, 15, 21, 23-25, 41, 59, 336.
+
+  Astar´te, Ashtaroth, 32, 44.
+
+  Asty´ages, 24, 73-75.
+
+  Athali´ah, 42.
+
+  Athe´na, 111, 112, 128, 136.
+
+  Athens, Athenians, 84-86, 91-98, 108, 122, 129-197, 222, 336, 342.
+
+  Athos, 85, 89.
+
+  Ath´ribis, 63.
+
+  Atlan´tic, 31, 69, 315.
+
+  At´las, 48.
+
+  Attali´a, 231.
+
+  At´talus, 357.
+    I., 227, 230.
+    II., Philadelphus, 231.
+    III., Philometor, 231.
+
+  At´tica, 86, 91, 92, 106, 124-133.
+
+  At´tila, 358, 359.
+
+  Aty´adæ, 29.
+
+  Augus´tulus, Romulus Augustus, 361.
+
+  Augus´tus, 326-328, 332.
+
+  Augustus, title, 326, 340, 346, 347.
+
+  Aurelian, 343.
+
+  Aure´olus, 343.
+
+  Auso´nians, 277.
+
+  Antro´nius, 312.
+
+  Avi´tos, 360.
+
+  Azari´ah, 42.
+
+
+  B
+
+  Ba´al, 32, 40, 42.
+
+  Ba´asha, 40, 42.
+
+  Ba´bel, 17.
+
+  Bab´ylon, Babylo´nia, Babylonians, 10, 15-29, 31, 32, 35, 43, 45, 56,
+     74, 77, 88, 93, 204, 208, 209, 213.
+
+  Bac´tra (Balkh), 13.
+
+  Bac´tria, 13, 204, 211, 235.
+
+  Bago´as, 98.
+
+  Baltic, 69.
+
+  Bar´ca, 50, 76.
+
+  Bar´des, 78, 87.
+
+  Barsi´ne, 205.
+
+  Bas´ilis´cus, 360.
+
+  Bata´vians, 334.
+
+  Behistûn´, 87.
+
+  Belshaz´zar, 28.
+
+  Beneven´tum, 277, 282.
+
+  Benha´dad, 19, 40-42.
+
+  Benjamin, 39, 42.
+
+  Ber´eui´ce, 211, 220.
+
+  Bero´sus, 9, 18.
+
+  Bery´tus (Beirût), 30, 32.
+
+  Bes´sus, 101, 204.
+
+  Beth´el, 40.
+
+  Beth-ho´ron, 35, 40-50, 228.
+
+  Beth´shan, Scythopolis, 44.
+
+  Bi´as, 126.
+
+  Bib´ulus, 314, 319.
+
+  Bithy´nia, 14, 210, 231, 232, 311.
+
+  Boccho´ris, 59.
+
+  Bœo´tia, Bœo´tians, 91, 92, 106, 114, 138, 155, 160, 161, 168, 190.
+
+  Bon´iface, 358.
+
+  Boö´des, 284.
+
+  Bor´sippa, 28.
+
+  Bos´phorus, 197.
+
+  Boulogne´, 346.
+
+  Bras´idas, 166, 168.
+
+  Bren´nus, 223.
+
+  Britain, 9, 133, 316, 334, 336, 343, 346, 350, 352, 354, 356, 358.
+
+  Britan´nicus, 331.
+
+  Brundis´ium, 306, 324.
+
+  Brut´tium, Brut´tians, 247, 279, 280.
+
+  Brutus, Decimus, 315.
+    Marcus, 323, 324.
+
+  Brygians, 85.
+
+  Bubas´tis, city, 58.
+    Pasht, 56.
+
+  Buceph´ala, 205.
+
+  Burgun´dians, 356, 358.
+
+  Bur´rhus, 331.
+
+  Busenti´nus, 357.
+
+  Byb´lus, 30, 155.
+
+  Byr´sa, 66.
+
+  Byzan´tium, 85, 133, 145, 158, 196, 202, 348, 349.
+
+
+  C
+
+  Cabi´ri, 32.
+
+  Cadme´a, 108, 188.
+
+  Cad´mus, 108.
+
+  Cæ´lian Hill, 250, 251.
+
+  Cæ´pio, 304.
+
+  Cæsar, title, 334, 335, 339, 340, 344, 346, 350, 351.
+
+  Cæsar, Caius Julius, 313-323,
+    L., 304.
+
+  Cæsare´a, 240.
+
+  Cala´bria, 131, 247.
+
+  Ca´lah, 19.
+
+  Caledonians, 339.
+
+  Calig´ula, 241, 330.
+
+  Cal´lias, 191.
+
+  Callim´achus, 217.
+
+  Cal´neh, 17.
+
+  Camby´ses, 60, 76-78.
+
+  Camil´lus, 269, 271, 273.
+    L. Furius, 273.
+
+  Campagna, 246.
+
+  Campa´nia, Campa´nians, 246, 249.
+
+  Ca´naan, 34, 35.
+
+  Canaries, 67.
+
+  Can´næ, 289, 290.
+
+  Cape´na, 270.
+
+  Cap´itoline, 250, 251, 253, 272, 273, 292.
+
+  Cappado´cia, 14, 29, 74, 89, 95, 232-235.
+
+  Cap´ua, 249, 306, 308.
+
+  Car´acal´la, 339.
+
+  Carau´sius, 346.
+
+  Car´chemish, 25, 31, 44, 60.
+
+  Caria, Carians, 14, 85, 196, 227.
+
+  Cari´uns, 344.
+
+  Carmel, 15, 40.
+
+  Carthage, Carthaginians, 31, 48, 50, 66-70, 76, 133, 281, 283-291, 293,
+     294, 299, 322, 358.
+
+  Carthage´na, 66, 287, 359.
+
+  Car´rhæ, 316, 346.
+
+  Ca´rus, 344.
+
+  Cas´ca, 323.
+
+  Cassan´der, 207.
+
+  Cassius, Avidius, 337.
+    Caius, 317, 324.
+    Sp., 261, 262.
+
+  Cas´sivelau´nus, 316.
+
+  Castor, 260.
+
+  Catali´na, L. Sergius, 310, 312.
+
+  Cat´ana, 171, 172.
+
+  Ca´to, censor, 293.
+    Marcus, 316, 317, 321.
+
+  Cat´ulus, 302.
+
+  Can´casus, 23.
+
+  Cau´dine Forks, 277.
+
+  Cau´nians, 85.
+
+  Cecro´pia, 108.
+
+  Ce´crops, 108.
+
+  Cec´ryphali´n, 154.
+
+  Cephalle´nia, 107, 155, 161, 190.
+
+  Cephis´sus, 114.
+
+  Cerau´nus, 210, 217.
+
+  Ce´res, 256.
+
+  Ceylon, 31.
+
+  Chærone´a, 156, 190.
+
+  Chalce´don, 233, 343.
+
+  Chalcid´ice, 133.
+
+  Chal´cis, 155.
+
+  Chaldæ´a, 15, 17, 18.
+
+  Chaloas´, 359.
+
+  Char´icles, 173.
+
+  Charila´us, 119.
+
+  Cheops, 52.
+
+  Cher´sone´sus, Thracian, 86, 127, 196, 212.
+
+  Chi´lo, 126.
+
+  Chi´na, 16, 17.
+
+  Chin-nong, 17.
+
+  Chi´os, 14, 95, 115, 161, 196, 227.
+
+  Choras´mia, 13.
+
+  Chos´roes, 350.
+
+  Christians, 331, 336-338, 342, 347, 352.
+
+  Cic´ero, Marcus Tullius, 310, 312, 323, 324.
+
+  Cili´cia, 14, 29.
+
+  Cim´bri, 301, 302.
+
+  Ci´mon, 148-156.
+
+  Cin´cinna´tus, 264, 265.
+
+  Cin´eas, 280.
+
+  Cin´na, 305, 306.
+
+  Cin´nelada´nus, 25.
+
+  Cir´cus Max´imus, 252.
+
+  Cirrha´, 121.
+
+  Cir´ta, 358.
+
+  Cithæ´ron, 106, 143.
+
+  Claudius, Appius, 263, 266-268.
+    Censor, 280, 283.
+    Consul, 284.
+    I., Emperor, 330, 331.
+    II., Emperor, 343.
+    father-in-law of Gracchus, 297.
+
+  Cleob´ulus, 126.
+
+  Cleom´brotus, 143, 189-192.
+
+  Cleom´enes, 130, 138.
+    of Macedon, 225.
+
+  Cleon, 162, 164, 166, 167.
+
+  Cleopa´tra, last Queen of Macedon, 208.
+    last Queen of Egypt, 221, 319, 320, 325.
+    sister of Ptolemy Eupator, 220.
+    of Syria, 214.
+
+  Clisthenes, 129, 130, 152.
+
+  Clitus, 205.
+
+  Clu´sium, 260.
+
+  Cly´pea, 284.
+
+  Co´drus, 124.
+
+  Col´chis, 350.
+
+  Colise´um, Flavian amphitheater, 334, 356.
+
+  Com´modus, 338.
+
+  Concor´dia, 359.
+
+  Con´stantine I., 347-349.
+    II., 350, 351.
+
+  Constantine III., 356, 357.
+
+  Constans, 350.
+
+  Con´stantino´ple, 348, 353, 361.
+
+  Constan´tius, Chlorus, 346, 347.
+    II., 350, 351.
+    III., 357.
+
+  Cop´tos, 55.
+
+  Cor´bulo, 332.
+
+  Corcy´ra, 107, 158, 161, 165, 171, 190, 191.
+
+  Corfin´ium, 304, 318.
+
+  Cor´inth, 97, 106, 122, 126, 137, 153, 159, 202, 208, 294, 322, 342.
+
+  Coriola´nus, Caius Marcius, 263, 264.
+
+  Cori´oli, 263.
+
+  Corne´lia, 299.
+
+  Corne´lius, 251, 307.
+
+  Coronæ´a, 157, 196.
+
+  Cor´sica, 67-69, 247, 284, 286, 293.
+
+  Corupe´dion, 210.
+
+  Cos, 115, 196.
+
+  Cotta, 233.
+
+  Crassus, Licinius, 231.
+    M. Licinius, triumvir, 306, 309, 310, 314-316.
+
+  Crat´erus, 207.
+
+  Cra´this, 132.
+
+  Crem´era, 262.
+
+  Cresphon´tes, 114, 115.
+
+  Crete, 54, 107, 109, 121, 125.
+
+  Creu´sis, 191.
+
+  Crime´a, 232.
+
+  Crispus, 348, 349.
+
+  Crital´la, 89.
+
+  Critias, 181.
+
+  Crœsus, 29, 30, 60, 74, 123.
+
+  Croto´na, 131, 132.
+
+  Ctes´iphon, 344, 352.
+
+  Cu´mæ, 131, 257.
+
+  Cunax´a, 96.
+
+  Cu´rio, 318.
+
+  Cu´rius Denta´tus, 278, 279, 282.
+
+  Cyax´ares, 21-25.
+
+  Cyb´ele, 29.
+
+  Cyc´lades, 107, 115, 161, 218.
+
+  Cy´lon, 125.
+
+  Cyn´oceph´alæ, 194, 227.
+
+  Cynop´olis, 63.
+
+  Cyprus, 14, 20, 85, 93, 98, 149, 156, 208, 216, 219, 221.
+
+  Cy´rena´ica, 218, 220.
+
+  Cyre´ne, 50, 67, 76, 107, 133, 216, 218.
+
+  Cyrus, river, 14.
+    the Great, 28, 30, 32, 73-75, 81.
+    the Younger, 93, 96.
+
+  Cythe´ra, 107, 167.
+
+  Cyz´icus, 177, 233, 339, 342.
+
+
+  D
+
+  Da´cians, 334, 335.
+
+  Damas´cus, 19, 33, 41, 43.
+
+  Dan, 40.
+
+  Dan´ai, 108.
+
+  Da´naus, 108.
+
+  Dan´iel, 23, 25, 26, 75.
+
+  Dan´ube, 84, 133, 334, 336, 353, 358.
+
+  Dari´us, Astyages, 75.
+    I., the Great, 74, 77-78, 134.
+    II., Nothus, 95, 96.
+    III., Codoman´nus, 99.
+
+  Da´tis, 86, 134.
+
+  Da´vid, 33, 37.
+
+  De´a Di´a, 256.
+
+  Deb´orah, 35.
+
+  Deceb´alus, 335.
+
+  Decius, Emperor, 341, 342.
+    Publius, 275, 278.
+
+  Dei´oces, 23.
+
+  De´lium, 168.
+
+  De´los, 117, 134, 148, 165.
+
+  Del´phi, 91, 114, 119, 156, 196-257.
+
+  Del´ta, 49, 53, 54, 58, 59, 93.
+
+  Demara´tus, 138, 147.
+
+  Deme´ter, 111, 113, 138.
+
+  Deme´trius, Poliorce´tes, 210, 223.
+    I., of Syria, 213.
+    II., Nicator, 214.
+    II., of Macedon, 224, 225.
+    second son of Philip V., 227.
+    of Bactria, 235.
+
+  Demos´thenes, general, 166, 167, 173.
+    orator, 197, 222.
+
+  Den´mark, 9.
+
+  Di´do, 33, 66.
+
+  Diocle´tian, 344-347.
+
+  Diod´otus, 235.
+
+  Diony´sius, 189, 193.
+
+  Diony´sus, 111, 113.
+
+  Dodo´na, 106, 113.
+
+  Dolabel´la, 279.
+
+  Domi´tian, 334, 335.
+
+  Donatists, 358.
+
+  Do´ris, Do´rians, 106, 114, 115, 154.
+
+  Doris´cus, 89.
+
+  Dra´co, 124, 126.
+
+  Dru´sus, Livius, 298.
+    M. Livius, 304.
+    step-son of Augustus, 327, 328.
+    son of Tiberius, 329.
+
+  Dryo´pians, 114.
+
+  Dyaus, 110.
+
+
+  E
+
+  Ecbat´ana, 23, 24, 74.
+
+  Ec´nomus, 284.
+
+  E´domites, 37, 42.
+
+  Ege´ria, 250.
+
+  Egesta, 170, 171.
+
+  Egypt, Egyptians, 20, 29, 48, 50-66, 75, 93, 95, 98, 153, 155, 204, 208,
+     211, 213, 216-222, 333, 346, 348, 354.
+
+  Ei´on, 148.
+
+  Elagab´alus, Bassia´nus, 340.
+
+  E´lath, 42.
+
+  Elba, 69.
+
+  Elephan´tine, 49, 50, 53, 54.
+
+  Eleu´sis, Eleusinian, 113, 130, 170, 171, 286.
+
+  Eli´jah, 40.
+
+  E´lis, Eleans, 106, 121, 169, 192-194.
+
+  El´tekeh, 20.
+
+  E´os, 111.
+
+  Epam´inon´das, 189-195.
+
+  Eph´esus, 85, 115, 131, 342.
+
+  Ephial´tes, 90.
+
+  E´phraim, 34.
+
+  Epicte´tus, 335.
+
+  Epidam´nus, 158.
+
+  Epidau´ria, 106.
+
+  Epimen´ides, 125.
+
+  Epi´rus, 105.
+
+  Erastos´thenes, 217.
+
+  E´rech, Orchoë, 17.
+
+  Erecthe´um, 158.
+
+  Ere´tria, 85, 134.
+
+  Erin´nyes, 112.
+
+  Eryth´ræ, 95, 143.
+
+  E´ryx, 281.
+
+  Esarhad´don, 20, 25, 59.
+
+  Esdrae´lon, 44.
+
+  Es´quiline Hill, 334.
+
+  Ethba´al, 32, 40.
+
+  Ethio´pia, 20, 50, 54, 57.
+
+  Etru´ria, 245, 246, 262, 270, 278, 282, 286.
+
+  Etrus´cans, 248, 271, 273, 277-280.
+
+  Eubϫa, 107, 134, 157, 196.
+
+  Eu´clid, 217.
+
+  Eucrat´ides, 235.
+
+  Eudox´ia, 359.
+
+  Euge´nius, 354.
+
+  Eu´menes, 207.
+    of Pergamus, 230.
+    II., of Pergamus, 230.
+
+  Eumen´ides, 112, 125.
+
+  Eumol´pidæ, 171, 176.
+
+  Euphra´tes, 10, 13, 15, 25, 28, 340.
+
+  Euro´pa, 110.
+
+  Euro´tas, 107.
+
+  Eurybi´ades, 140.
+
+  Euryd´ice, 207.
+
+  Eurym´edon, river, 149.
+    general, 173.
+
+  Eurys´thenes, 115, 118.
+
+  Euthyde´mus, 212, 235.
+
+  Evil-mer´odach, 27.
+
+  E´zion-ge´ber, 38.
+
+  Ez´ra, 93, 94.
+
+
+  F
+
+  Fa´bii, 262.
+
+  Fa´bius Gur´ges, 278.
+    Kæso, 262.
+    Max´imus, 278.
+    Max´imus Cunctator, 288.
+
+  Fabri´cius, 280.
+
+  Faioom´, 54.
+
+  Fale´rii, 270.
+
+  Fau´nus, 257.
+
+  Fetia´les, 259.
+
+  Fir´mus, 353.
+
+  Flamin´ius, consul, 288.
+
+  Flamini´nus, 227.
+
+  Flo´rian, 343, 344.
+
+  Florus, Gess´ius, 241.
+
+  For´monte´ra, 308.
+
+  Fo´rum, 252, 254, 263, 305, 329, 333.
+    of Trajan, 335.
+
+  Franks, 342, 346, 348, 351, 358.
+
+  Frenta´ni, 247.
+
+  Ful´via, 324.
+
+  Ful´vius Flac´cus, 299.
+
+
+  G
+
+  Gad, tribe, 34.
+    prophet, 94.
+
+  Gades, Cadiz, Kadesh, 31, 287.
+
+  Gala´tia, 210, 224.
+
+  Gal´ba, Emperor, 332, 333.
+    Sertorius, 294.
+    Sulpic´ius, 226, 227.
+
+  Galep´sus, 168.
+
+  Gale´rius, 347, 348.
+
+  Gal´ilee, 239, 241.
+
+  Gallie´nus, 343.
+
+  Gal´lus, Emperor, 342.
+
+  Gal´lus Cæsar, 350, 351.
+
+  Gan´ges, 57.
+
+  Garga´nus, 247.
+
+  Gath, 37.
+
+  Gaugame´la, 100.
+
+  Gauls, 67, 210, 211, 223, 246, 269-273, 278-280, 286-288, 293, 301, 302,
+     314-318, 339-344, 346, 350, 354, 356, 357.
+
+  Gau´zani´tis, 20.
+
+  Ga´za, 204.
+
+  Geba, 42.
+
+  Gedro´sia, 205.
+
+  Gen´seric, 358-360.
+
+  Genu´cius, 262.
+
+  Ger´izim, 94, 239.
+
+  German´icus, 328-330.
+
+  Germany, Germans, 301, 314-316, 327-332, 334, 336, 340-342, 351.
+
+  Ge´ta, 338.
+
+  Gib´eon, 34.
+
+  Gid´eon, 35.
+
+  Gilbo´a, 37.
+
+  Gil´ead, 38.
+
+  Gis´co, 284.
+
+  Glau´cia, 303.
+
+  Glyce´rius, 360.
+
+  Golcon´da, 16.
+
+  Goma´tes, 78, 87.
+
+  Gordian, 341.
+
+  Gor´dias, 29.
+
+  Gor´dium, 29, 99.
+
+  Goths, 342, 344, 348, 349, 353, 356-360.
+
+  Gracchus, Caius, 297-299.
+    Sempronius, 293.
+    Tiberius, 296, 297.
+
+  Grani´cus, 99, 203.
+
+  Gratian, 353, 354.
+
+  Greece, Greeks, 10, 50, 74, 76, 83-102, 105-197, 202-205, 208, 209, 212,
+     217, 218, 222-227, 247, 274, 280, 285, 286, 306, 342.
+
+  Gund´obaid, 360.
+
+  Gy´ges, 20.
+
+  Gylip´pus, 172.
+
+  Gyth´ium, 155.
+
+
+  H
+
+  Ha´des, 111.
+
+  Ha´drian, 337.
+
+  Hadriano´ple, 348, 353.
+
+  Hadrume´tum, 50.
+
+  Ha´læ, 154.
+
+  Hal´icarnas´sus, 16, 19, 99, 115.
+
+  Ha´lys, 14, 23, 74, 233.
+
+  Ham, 10, 17, 216.
+
+  Ha´math, 33, 41.
+
+  Hamil´car, 69, 70.
+    Bar´ca, 11.
+
+  Han´nibal, the Great, 212, 225, 285, 287-291.
+    son of Gisco, 284.
+
+  Han´no, 69, 284.
+
+  Harmo´dius, 129.
+
+  Has´drubal, brother-in-law of Hannibal, 287.
+    brother of Hannibal, 287, 290.
+
+  Haz´ael, 19, 40.
+
+  Ha´zor, 35.
+
+  He´bron, 37.
+
+  Hec´ate, 111.
+
+  Hecatom´pylos, 212.
+
+  Hel´icon, 106.
+
+  Heliodo´rus, 213, 237.
+
+  Heliop´olis, 55, 57.
+
+  He´lios, 111.
+
+  Hel´las, 107.
+
+  Hel´len, 116.
+
+  Hel´lespont´, 88, 89, 92, 99, 128.
+
+  Helve´tii, 315.
+
+  Hephæs´tus, 111.
+
+  He´ra, 111.
+
+  Heracle´a, 280, 348.
+
+  Heracleop´olis, 53, 54, 63.
+
+  Herac´lian, 357.
+
+  Her´acli´dæ, 29, 115.
+
+  Hercula´neum, 274, 334.
+
+  Her´cules, 30, 32, 69, 108, 287.
+
+  Herdo´nius, 264.
+
+  Her´manric, 353.
+
+  Her´mes, 62, 111.
+
+  Hermi´onis, 106.
+
+  Hermodo´rus, 265.
+
+  Hermon, 15.
+
+  Her´od Agrip´pa, 241.
+    An´tipas, 241.
+    the Great, 239-241.
+
+  Herod´otus, 16, 23, 30.
+
+  Hes´tia, 111.
+
+  Hezeki´ah, 25, 43.
+
+  Hiar´bas, 66.
+
+  Hi´emp´sal, 299.
+
+  Hi´ero, 284.
+
+  Hieron´ymus, 289.
+
+  Himala´yas, 13, 16.
+
+  Him´era, 70, 172.
+
+  Himil´co, 69.
+
+  Hin´dus, 81.
+
+  Hippar´chus, the astronomer, 217.
+    son of Pisistratus, 129.
+
+  Hip´pias, 86, 129, 135.
+
+  Hip´po Re´gius, 358.
+
+  Hippoc´rates, 168.
+
+  Hip´podrome, 217.
+
+  Hip´pos, 50.
+
+  Hi´ram, King of Tyre, 38.
+    architect of the Temple, 39.
+
+  Histiæ´a, 157.
+
+  Histiæ´us, 84.
+
+  Hit (Is), 56.
+
+  Hit´tites, 33.
+
+  Ho´mer, 109, 110, 128.
+
+  Hono´rius, 355-357.
+
+  Hor´ace, 328.
+
+  Hora´tius, 267, 268.
+
+  Horten´sius, 279.
+
+  Ho´rus, 56, 62.
+
+  Hosh´ea, 41.
+
+  Hostilia´nus, 342.
+
+  Hydar´nes, 139.
+
+  Hydas´pes, 205.
+
+  Hy´drea, 107.
+
+  Hyk´sos, 53-55.
+
+  Hymet´tus, 106.
+
+  Hypha´sis, Sutlej, 205.
+
+  Hyrca´nus, John, 239, 239, 311.
+
+  Hystas´pes, 76, 79.
+    son of Darius, 93.
+
+
+  I
+
+  Iapyg´ia, Iapygians, 247, 248.
+
+  Ichthyoph´agi, 76.
+
+  Icil´ius, 267.
+
+  Iddo, 94.
+
+  Idume´a, 239.
+
+  Iliad, 109
+
+  Illyr´icum, Illyrians, 114, 201, 314, 344, 348, 350, 354, 356.
+
+  Im´bros, 107, 136.
+
+  I´narus, 93, 153.
+
+  India, 9, 10, 16, 57, 83, 205, 212.
+
+  In´dra, 81.
+
+  In´dus, 13, 14, 16, 83, 205.
+
+  Interam´na, 342.
+
+  Io´nia, Ionians, 84, 85, 115, 134, 114, 145.
+
+  Iphic´rates, 97.
+
+  Ipsambul, 57.
+
+  Ip´sus, 208, 209.
+
+  I´ra, 122, 123.
+
+  I´ran, 10.
+
+  I´ris, 111.
+
+  Irnac, 359.
+
+  Isag´oras, 130.
+
+  Isaiah, 75.
+
+  Ishbo´sheth, 57.
+
+  I´sis, 51, 62.
+
+  Is´rael, Is´raelites, 19, 34-45.
+
+  Is´sus, 100, 203, 338.
+
+  Isto´ne, 165.
+
+  Is´tria, 133.
+
+  Italy, Italians, 10, 67, 245-248, 304-306, 342, 346-350, 354, 356, 358.
+
+  Ith´aca, 107.
+
+  Ith´amar, 20.
+
+  Itho´me, 122, 151, 153-155.
+
+  Iva Lush, (Hu-likh-khus), 19.
+
+  Ivi´ca, 308.
+
+
+  J
+
+  Ja´bin, 35.
+
+  Ja´cob, 34.
+
+  Jad´dua, 204.
+
+  Janic´ulum, 252, 268, 279.
+
+  Janus, 256, 325.
+
+  Japheth, 10, 216.
+
+  Ja´sher, 94.
+
+  Ja´son, 192.
+
+  Jaxar´tes, 13, 204.
+
+  Jeb´usites, 37.
+
+  Jeho´abaz, 40.
+
+  Jehoi´achin, 44.
+
+  Jehoi´ada, 42.
+
+  Jehoi´akim, 25, 44.
+
+  Jeho´ram, King of Israel, 40.
+    King of Judah, 42.
+
+  Jehosh´aphat, 42.
+
+  Je´hu, 40.
+
+  Jeremi´ah, 44.
+
+  Jerobo´am I., 39, 40, 42, 58.
+    II., 41.
+
+  Jeru´salem, 25, 26, 37, 58, 75, 93, 94, 237-241, 334, 336, 352.
+
+  Jez´ebel, 40.
+
+  Jo´ash, 40, 42.
+
+  John, usurper, 358.
+
+  Jon´athan, 37.
+
+  Jor´dan, 15, 34.
+
+  Jo´seph, 34, 64.
+
+  Jose´phus, 58.
+
+  Josh´ua, 34, 35.
+
+  Josi´ah, 43, 44.
+
+  Ju´vian, 352.
+
+  Ju´ba, 318, 319.
+
+  Judæ´a, 34-45, 58, 214, 237-241, 332, 334, 336.
+
+  Ju´dah, 19, 20, 37, 39, 42, 73.
+
+  Ju´das Maccabæ´us, 213, 238.
+
+  Jugur´tha, 299, 300, 301.
+
+  Julia, daughter of Cæsar, 317.
+    Mæsa, 339.
+
+  Julian, 350-352.
+
+  Julia´nus, Didius, 338.
+
+  Julius Cæsar, 221, 313-323.
+
+  Ju´lius Ne´pos, 360, 361.
+
+  Juno, 253.
+
+  Juno´nia, 298.
+
+  Ju´piter, 253, 255, 256, 337.
+
+  Justin Martyr, 337.
+
+  Justi´na, 354.
+
+
+  K
+
+  Kar´nac, 55-57.
+
+  Ker´man, 15.
+
+  Khorsabad´, 20.
+
+  Kirjathje´arim, 37.
+
+  Kish, 36.
+
+  Koko´me, 52.
+
+  Kotro´ni, 86.
+
+  Kro´nos, 69.
+
+
+  L
+
+  Lab´alum, 172.
+
+  La´borosoar´chod, 27.
+
+  Lab´yrinth, 54.
+
+  La´cedæ´mon, 106, 118-123.
+
+  La´cedæmo´nius, 159.
+
+  Laco´nia, 106, 118-123.
+
+  Lam´achus, 170-172.
+
+  Laod´ice´a, 210.
+
+  Laom´edon, 237.
+
+  La´res, 257.
+
+  Lars Por´sena, 260.
+
+  La´tium, Latins, 246, 248, 250, 260, 273, 276.
+
+  Lau´rium, 137, 162.
+
+  Lau´tulæ, 277.
+
+  Leb´anon, 15, 75.
+
+  Leb´edos, 115.
+
+  Lechæ´um, 106, 193.
+
+  Lem´nos, 107, 136.
+
+  Leo, 359.
+
+  Leon´idas, 90, 139.
+
+  Leonti´ni, 170.
+
+  Lep´idus, embassador, 219.
+    triumvir, 324, 325.
+
+  Lep´tis, 50.
+
+  Les´bos, 14, 95, 115, 161, 164, 165.
+
+  Leuca´dia, 107, 161.
+
+  Leuc´tra, 191.
+
+  Levant´, 14.
+
+  Le´vites, 34.
+
+  Libya, Libyans, 49, 50, 56, 66, 67, 69, 74.
+
+  Licin´ius, C. Sto´lo, 272, 278.
+    emperor, 348.
+
+  Ligu´ria, 245.
+
+  Lilybæ´um, 281.
+
+  Lip´ara, 284.
+
+  Locri, 115, 132, 281, 282.
+
+  Locris, 106, 155, 157, 161, 196.
+
+  Luca´ui, 304.
+
+  Luca´nia, Luca´nians, 247, 278, 279, 280.
+
+  Lu´ceres, 251, 253.
+
+  Lucul´lus, 233, 311.
+
+  Lugdu´num, 339.
+
+  Lusitania, Lusitanians, 294, 308, 333.
+
+  Luta´tius, consul, B. C. 242, 285.
+    consul with Marius, 302.
+
+  Lux´or, 56.
+
+  Ly´cia, 14, 29.
+
+  Lycome´des, 193.
+
+  Lyc´ophron, 196.
+
+  Lycop´olis, 63.
+
+  Lycurgus, of Sparta, 119-121, 225.
+    of Athens, 127, 128.
+
+  Ly´cus, 101.
+
+  Lydia, Lydians, 14, 20, 23, 24, 28, 29, 60-74, 95, 112, 211, 231.
+
+  Ly´ons, 337, 354.
+
+  Lysan´der, 95, 178-182, 184.
+
+  Lys´ias, 213.
+
+  Lysim´achus, 208, 210, 223, 230.
+
+
+  M
+
+  Maccabæ´us, Judas, 213, 238.
+    Jonathan, 238.
+    Simon, 238.
+
+  Macedon, Macedonians, 85, 99, 159, 163, 188, 193, 201-241, 306, 346.
+
+  Machæ´rus, 239.
+
+  Macra, 246, 282.
+
+  Macri´nus, 339, 340.
+
+  Macro´bii, 76.
+
+  Madei´ra, 67.
+
+  Ma´gas, 218.
+
+  Ma´gi, 24, 78, 79, 82, 87.
+
+  Mag´na Græ´cia, 107, 132.
+
+  Magnen´tius, 350.
+
+  Magne´sia, 196, 227, 293.
+
+  Ma´go, 68.
+
+  Ma´lis, 106.
+
+  Mam´ertine Prison, 252, 278.
+
+  Mam´ertines, 281, 284.
+
+  Manas´seh, 34, 94.
+
+  Man´etho, 51, 52, 58, 217.
+
+  Manil´ius, 311.
+
+  Ma´nis, 109.
+
+  Man´lius, Consuls, 275, 284, 285.
+    Marcus, 270-272.
+    Titus, 275.
+
+  Man´nus, 109.
+
+  Mantine´a, Mantine´ans, 169, 192, 194, 226.
+
+  Maracan´da, 13.
+
+  Ma´rathon, 86, 128, 135-137.
+
+  Marcelli´nus, 360.
+
+  Marcel´lus, 289.
+
+  Marcianop´olis, 353.
+
+  Mardo´nius, 85, 92, 134, 142-144.
+
+  Mare´shah, 58.
+
+  Mar´gus, 344.
+
+  Mariamne, 240.
+
+  Ma´rius, consul, 300-306, 313.
+    the Younger, 306.
+
+  Marjo´rian, 360.
+
+  Mar´ruci´ni, 246, 304.
+
+  Mars, 249, 256.
+
+  Mar´si, 246, 304.
+
+  Martius, Ancus, 251-253.
+
+  Masis´tius, 143.
+
+  Massagetæ, 75.
+
+  Massilia (Marseilles), 107, 131, 132, 318, 348.
+
+  Mas´sinis´sa, 291, 299, 300.
+
+  Massi´va, 300.
+
+  Mattathi´as, 213, 238.
+
+  Maurita´nia, 48, 67, 300.
+
+  Mausole´um, 217.
+
+  Mauso´lus, 196.
+
+  Maxen´tius, 347, 348.
+
+  Maxim´ian, 346-348.
+
+  Max´imin, 341.
+    emperor in the East, 347, 348.
+
+  Maximus, 354.
+    contemporary of Theodosius
+    the Great, 355.
+    murderer of Valentinian III., 359.
+
+  Media, 14, 20-24, 41, 73, 74, 204, 211.
+
+  Megaby´zus, 93.
+
+  Megacles, 127-129.
+
+  Megalop´olis, 192.
+
+  Meg´ara, 153, 154, 161.
+
+  Meg´arid, 157.
+
+  Meg´aris, 106, 154, 157.
+
+  Megid´do, 44.
+
+  Mel´carth, 32.
+
+  Mel´pum, 269.
+
+  Mem´non, 56.
+    general, 99, 203.
+
+  Memno´nium, 57.
+
+  Mem´phis, 49, 51-55, 60, 76, 77, 93, 155.
+
+  Men´ahem, 41.
+
+  Men´cheres, 52.
+
+  Men´des, 63.
+
+  Menela´us, 109.
+
+  Me´nes, 51, 109.
+
+  Men´tor, 98.
+
+  Me´nu, 109.
+
+  Merm´nadæ, 29.
+
+  Mer´odach-bal´adan, 20, 25.
+
+  Mer´oë, 50.
+
+  Me´rom, 35.
+
+  Mesopota´mia, 15, 336, 344.
+
+  Mes´phra, Amen-set, 55.
+
+  Mes´sali´na, 330.
+
+  Messa´na, 281, 284.
+
+  Messa´pia, Calabria, 247.
+
+  Messe´ne, 193.
+
+  Messe´nia, Messenians, 106, 115, 121-123, 151, 155, 166, 167, 192.
+
+  Metau´rus, 290.
+
+  Metellus, proconsul, 285.
+    Numidicus, 300, 301.
+    Pius, 306, 308.
+
+  Methym´na, 165.
+
+  Meuse, 351.
+
+  Mich´mash, 37.
+
+  Micip´sa, 299.
+
+  Mi´das, 29.
+
+  Milan, 273, 343, 347, 349, 351, 352, 355, 359, 360.
+
+  Mile´sians, 158.
+
+  Miletus, 84, 85, 115, 131.
+
+  Milo, 132.
+
+  Milti´ades, 86, 127, 135, 136, 148.
+
+  Milvian Bridge, 348.
+
+  Miner´va, 253, 255.
+
+  Mi´nos, 109.
+
+  Mintur´næ, 305.
+
+  Mis´raim, 51.
+
+  Mississip´pi, 9.
+
+  Mith´ra, 81.
+
+  Mith´rida´tes I., 232.
+    III., 232.
+    IV., 232.
+    V., the Great, 233, 304, 310.
+
+  Miz´peh, 42.
+
+  Mnes´theus, 343.
+
+  Mne´vis (Uenephes), 51, 63.
+
+  Mo´ab, Moabites, 34, 37, 40.
+
+  Moë´ris, 54.
+
+  Mϫsia, 341-343, 346.
+
+  Mo´lo, 211.
+
+  Moors, 346, 353, 358.
+
+  Mori´ah, 38.
+
+  Mo´ses, 34, 35, 43.
+
+  Mum´mius, L., 294.
+
+  Mun´da, 322.
+
+  Mure´na, 233.
+
+  Mu´tina, 324.
+
+  Myc´ale, 92, 115, 145.
+
+  Myce´næ, 106.
+
+  My´læ, 284.
+
+  Myrci´nus, 84.
+
+  Myron´ides, 154.
+
+  Mysia, 14, 99, 230.
+
+  Mysore´, 16.
+
+  Mytile´ne, 115, 164.
+
+
+  N
+
+  Nabona´dius, 26-28, 72.
+
+  Nabonas´sar, 19, 24.
+
+  Nabopolas´sar, 22, 24, 25.
+
+  Na´dab, 40.
+
+  Nak´shi-Rus´tam, 87.
+
+  Naples, 131.
+
+  Nar´bo Mar´tius, Narbonne´, 298.
+
+  Nar´ses, 346.
+
+  Naucli´des, 160.
+
+  Naucra´tis, 50, 125, 133.
+
+  Nau´lochus, 325.
+
+  Naupac´tus, 155, 161.
+
+  Nax´os, 133, 134, 149, 190.
+
+  Neap´olis, 274.
+
+  Near´chus, 205.
+
+  Nebuchadnez´zar, 22, 25-27, 31, 44, 45, 60.
+
+  Neb´uzar-a´dan, 26.
+
+  Ne´cho, 31, 44, 60.
+
+  Nectan´abis, 195.
+
+  Nectanebo, 98.
+
+  Nehemi´ah, 94.
+
+  Nem´esis, 136.
+
+  Nepe´te, 270.
+
+  Nereglis´sar, 27.
+
+  Nereids, 111.
+
+  Ne´reus, 32.
+
+  Ne´ro, consul, 290.
+    emperor, 332-334.
+
+  Ner´va, 335.
+
+  Nicæ´a, 205, 349.
+
+  Nica´nor, 238.
+
+  Nic´ias, 167, 169-175.
+
+  Nicome´des, Greek captain, 154, 155.
+
+  Nicome´des I., 210.
+    II., 231.
+    III., 232.
+
+  Nicome´dia, 231, 347.
+
+  Nicop´olis, 311, 320.
+
+  Ni´ger, 48, 339.
+
+  Nile, 48, 51, 155, 320.
+
+  Nim´rod, 17.
+
+  Nin´eveh, 10, 17, 19-21, 25, 56.
+
+  Ni´nus, 19.
+
+  Nis´ibis, 339, 350.
+
+  Nor´icum, 346.
+
+  Nu´bia, 49, 57, 74.
+
+  Nu´ma Pompil´ius, 250, 258.
+
+  Numan´tia, 295.
+
+  Nume´rian, 344.
+
+  Numidia, Numidians, 67, 291, 288, 299, 300.
+
+  Numitor, 249.
+
+
+  O
+
+  Ocean´ids, 111.
+
+  O´chus, 95, 98.
+
+  Octavia´nus, Augustus, 324-326, 328.
+
+  Octavius, consul, 305.
+    tribune, 297.
+
+  Odena´tus, 343.
+
+  Odo´acer, 361.
+
+  Œno´phyta, 155.
+
+  Œnus´sæ, 107.
+
+  Olyb´rius, 360.
+
+  Olym´pia, 113, 194.
+
+  Olym´pias, 207.
+
+  Olym´piodo´rus, 143.
+
+  Olym´pius, 356.
+
+  Olym´pus, 110.
+
+  Olyn´thus, 159, 188, 197.
+
+  Om´bos, 63.
+
+  Om´ri, 40.
+
+  Onomar´chus, 196.
+
+  Opim´ius, 300.
+
+  Orchom´enus, 156, 190, 196.
+
+  Ores´tes, 361.
+
+  Orkneys, 352.
+
+  Orleans, 359.
+
+  Ormazd, 81-83, 87.
+
+  Oron´tes, 15.
+
+  Osarsiph, Moses, 58.
+
+  Os´cans, 248, 277.
+
+  Osi´ris, 49, 51, 62.
+
+  Osor´kon II., 58.
+
+  Osortas´idæ, 54.
+
+  Os´tia, 252, 283, 305, 359.
+
+  Ostro-Goths, 353, 354.
+
+  Otho, 333.
+
+  Ovid, 328.
+
+  Oxyar´tes, 205.
+
+
+  P
+
+  Pacto´lus, 14.
+
+  Pa´dua, 359.
+
+  Pal´atine Hill, 251, 326.
+
+  Pal´estine, 15, 20, 25, 34-45, 211, 216, 311, 336.
+
+  Palmy´ra, 15, 343.
+
+  Pamphyl´ia, 14.
+
+  Pa´neas, 212.
+
+  Panio´nium, 115.
+
+  Panno´nia, 338, 341, 346.
+
+  Pano´peus, 91.
+
+  Panor´mus, Palermo, 284, 285.
+
+  Paphlago´nia, 14.
+
+  Papir´ius, 270.
+
+  Papre´mis, 93.
+
+  Paris, son of Priam, 109.
+
+  Paris, city, 351, 354.
+
+  Parme´nio, 205.
+
+  Parnas´sus, 91, 106.
+
+  Pa´ros, 136.
+
+  Par´thenon, 158.
+
+  Par´thia, Parthians, 211, 212, 235-241, 316, 317, 335, 337, 339, 340.
+
+  Parysa´tis, 95, 96.
+
+  Pasar´gadæ, 71.
+
+  Pate´na, 33.
+
+  Pausa´nias, 143, 144.
+
+  Pa´via, 359.
+
+  Pelas´gia, Pelasgi, 107, 248.
+
+  Pelig´ni, 246, 304.
+
+  Pelop´idas, 189-194.
+
+  Pelo´ponne´sus, 91, 108, 114, 118, 161.
+
+  Pe´lops, 108.
+
+  Pelu´sium, 53, 60, 219.
+
+  Pene´us, 114.
+
+  Perdic´cas, general, 206, 207, 234.
+    II., 159.
+    III., 201.
+
+  Peren´nis, 338.
+
+  Perian´der, 136.
+
+  Per´icles, 151-162.
+
+  Perin´thus, 202.
+
+  Per´gamus, 211, 227, 230, 231, 297.
+
+  Perper´na, 304.
+
+  Perseph´one, 113.
+
+  Persep´olis, 204.
+
+  Per´seus, 227, 228.
+
+  Per´sia, 14, 60, 71-102, 211, 340, 350, 352.
+
+  Persian Gulf, 17, 72.
+
+  Per´tinax, 338.
+
+  Pe´tra, 42.
+
+  Pha´on, 332.
+
+  Pha´raoh, Phrah, 20, 64.
+    -hophra, Apries, 60.
+    -necho, 25.
+
+  Pharnaba´zus, 95, 97, 186.
+
+  Phar´naces, 232, 320.
+
+  Pha´ros, 217.
+
+  Pharsa´lia, 319.
+
+  Phayl´lus, 196.
+
+  Phid´ias, 135, 158.
+
+  Phi´don, 118.
+
+  Philadel´phia, 231.
+
+  Philetæ´rus, 230.
+
+  Philip II. of Macedon, 98, 193, 196, 197, 201, 202.
+    Arrhidæ´us, 207.
+    IV., 222.
+    V., 212, 225-228.
+    Herod, 241.
+    of Syria, 213.
+    emperor, 341.
+
+  Philip´pi, 201, 324.
+
+  Philip´pus, of Thebes, 189.
+
+  Philis´tines, 19, 35-37, 54.
+
+  Philome´lus, 196.
+
+  Philopϫmen, 226, 227.
+
+  Philo´tas, 205.
+
+  Phocæ´a, 131.
+
+  Pho´cis, 106, 155, 157, 161, 196, 202.
+
+  Phϫbidas, 188.
+
+  Phœni´cia, Phœni´cians, 15, 16, 20, 25, 30-32, 50, 76, 98, 204, 216, 311.
+
+  Phor´mio, 163.
+
+  Phry´gia, 14, 29, 95, 210, 232.
+
+  Phtha, 62.
+
+  Phy´lidas, 189.
+
+  Pi´centi´ni, 304.
+
+  Pice´num, 246, 282.
+
+  Picts, 352.
+
+  Pilate, Pontius, 241.
+
+  Pin´dar, 203.
+
+  Pin´dus, 105, 106.
+
+  Piræ´us, 147, 154, 180.
+
+  Pi´sham, 58.
+
+  Pisid´ia, 96.
+
+  Pisis´tratus, 127, 128.
+
+  Pi´so, 312.
+    adopted son of Galba, 333.
+
+  Pi´thom, 55.
+
+  Pit´tacus, 126.
+
+  Placen´tia, 290, 360.
+
+  Placid´ia, 357, 358.
+
+  Platæ´a, 91, 92, 135, 138, 160-163, 188.
+
+  Pla´to, 150, 321.
+
+  Plemmyr´ium, 172.
+
+  Plin´y, 335.
+
+  Plisto´anax, 157.
+
+  Plu´tarch, 335.
+
+  Po, 245, 269.
+
+  Pollen´tia, 256.
+
+  Pollux, 260.
+
+  Polycarp, 336.
+
+  Polyc´rates, 60.
+
+  Polydec´tes, 119.
+
+  Polysper´chon, 207.
+
+  Pompeii, 274, 334.
+
+  Pompei´us, Qu., 295.
+
+  Pompey, Cneius, the Great, 215, 233, 239, 306-320.
+    Cneius, the Younger, 322.
+    Sextus, 322, 324, 325.
+
+  Pontius, 277, 278.
+
+  Pontus, 232-234, 311, 320.
+    marine god, 32.
+
+  Porus, 205.
+
+  Posi´don, 32, 111, 115.
+
+  Pos´thumus, 343.
+
+  Postu´mius, 304.
+
+  Pothi´nus, 319.
+
+  Potidæ´a, 133, 159, 162, 201.
+
+  Prænes´te, 306.
+
+  Prexas´pes, 78.
+
+  Priam, 109, 249.
+
+  Pro´bus, 343, 344.
+
+  Pro´cles, 115, 118.
+
+  Proconne´sus, 14.
+
+  Proco´pius, 353.
+
+  Propylæ´a, 158.
+
+  Proser´pina, 282.
+
+  Prosopi´tis, 155.
+
+  Pru´sias I. and II., 231.
+
+  Psammen´itus, 60, 76.
+
+  Psammet´ichus, 59, 60, 133.
+
+  Psyt´tali´a, 142.
+
+  Ptolemy, Ceraunus, 210.
+    I., Soter, 207, 208, 216, 217, 237.
+    II., Philadelphus, 211, 217, 218.
+    III., Euer´getes, 211, 218, 219.
+    IV., Philop´ator, 219, 237.
+    V., Epiph´anes, 212, 219.
+    VI., Phil´ome´tor, 219, 220.
+    VII., Eu´pator, 220.
+    VIII., Lath´yrus, 219, 220.
+    IX., Alexander, 220.
+    X., 221.
+    XI., Aule´tes, 221.
+    XII., 219, 221.
+    Phys´con, 219, 220.
+
+  Pub´lius De´cius, 275.
+
+  Pul, 18, 41.
+
+  Punjab´, 83, 205.
+
+  Pyd´na, 201.
+
+  Pygma´lion, 31.
+
+  Py´los, 166, 167, 170.
+
+  Pyr´amids, 53.
+
+  Pyr´rhus, 223, 224, 280-282.
+
+  Pythag´oras, 132.
+
+  Pyth´eas, 133.
+
+
+  Q
+
+  Qua´di, 337.
+
+  Quinc´tius, Kæso, 264.
+
+  Quirinal Hill, 250, 251, 254, 257.
+
+  Quiri´nus, 250, 256.
+
+
+  R
+
+  Raam´ses, 55.
+
+  Ra´mah, 40, 42.
+
+  Ram´eses I., 56.
+    II., 56, 57.
+    III., 58.
+
+  Ramesse´um, 57.
+
+  Ram´nes, 251, 253.
+
+  Raph´ia, 59, 211, 219.
+
+  Ras´ena, (Etruscans), 248.
+
+  Ratho´tis, Resitot, 56.
+
+  Raven´na, 356, 357.
+
+  Regil´lus, 260.
+
+  Reg´ulus, 284, 285.
+    his son, 286.
+
+  Rehobo´am, 39, 42, 58.
+
+  Re´mus, 249, 250.
+
+  Reu´ben, 34.
+
+  Rhadagai´sus, 355.
+
+  Rhæ´tia, 248.
+
+  Rhe´gium, 123, 132.
+
+  Rheims, 352.
+
+  Rhine, 315, 316, 328, 329, 335, 352.
+
+  Rhodes, 115, 196, 208, 227.
+
+  Rhone, 301, 314, 315.
+
+  Ric´imer, 359.
+
+  Roma´nus, 353.
+
+  Rome, 68, 212, 220, 245-361.
+
+  Rom´ulus, 249, 250, 256.
+
+  Roxa´na, 205.
+
+  Ru´bicon, 282, 318.
+
+  Rufi´nus, 356.
+
+  Ru´fus, tribune, 304.
+    general, 332.
+
+
+  S
+
+  Saba´co I and II., 59.
+
+  Saba´zius, 29.
+
+  Sa´bines, 246-248, 250, 251, 268, 278, 279.
+
+  Sac´ripor´tus, 306.
+
+  Sagun´tum, 287.
+
+  Saha´ra, 48.
+
+  Sa´is, 59, 63.
+
+  Salæ´thus, 164.
+
+  Sal´amis, 91-93, 107, 127, 138, 141, 142.
+    in Cyprus, 156, 208.
+
+  Sama´ria, 19, 20, 41, 94.
+
+  Sammura´mit, (Semir´ramis), 19, 87.
+
+  Sam´nium, Sam´nites, 217, 274-280, 282, 304, 306.
+
+  Sa´mos, 14, 60, 97, 110, 158, 227.
+
+  Samothra´ce, 107.
+
+  Sam´son, 35.
+
+  Sam´uel, 36.
+
+  Sanballat, 94.
+
+  Sa´os-duchinus, 25.
+
+  Sa´por, 342.
+
+  Sap´pho, 131.
+
+  Sar´acens, 21.
+
+  Sardi´nia, 67, 247, 284, 286, 293, 360.
+
+  Sar´dis, 14, 72, 85, 89.
+
+  Sargon, 20, 22, 25.
+
+  Sarma´tians, 344, 349.
+
+  Sa´rus, 357.
+
+  Sassan´idæ, 340, 342.
+
+  Sasy´chis, Mares-sesorcheres, 52.
+
+  Saturni´nus, 303.
+
+  Saul, 35, 37.
+
+  Sax´ons, 352.
+
+  Scio´ne, 168.
+
+  Scipio, Æmilianus, 294, 295, 297.
+    Africanus, 212, 290, 291, 299.
+    Asiaticus, 212.
+    (consul B. C. 260), 284.
+    (consul B. C. 218), 288, 289.
+
+  Scots, 352.
+
+  Scribo´nius, 332.
+
+  Scuta´ri, 348.
+
+  Scy´ros, 149.
+
+  Scyth´ia, Scythians, 13, 21, 23, 44, 83, 84, 336, 359.
+
+  Scythop´olis, 44.
+
+  Seja´nus, 329.
+
+  Sele´ne, 111.
+
+  Seleuci´a, 210, 215, 344.
+
+  Seleu´cidæ, 209-215.
+
+  Seleu´cus I., 208-210.
+    II., Callin´icus, 211.
+    III., Ceraunus, 211.
+    IV., Philop´ator, 213, 237.
+    V., 214.
+    VI., Epiph´anes, 215.
+
+  Seli´nus, 170, 171.
+
+  Sella´sia, 225.
+
+  Semir´amis, Sammura´mit, 19, 87.
+
+  Se´na, 290.
+
+  Sen´eca, 331.
+
+  Sennach´erib, 20, 21, 43, 49.
+
+  Sen´neh, 54.
+
+  Senti´num, 278.
+
+  Serape´um, 63.
+
+  Sera´pis, 217, 354.
+
+  Seri´ca, 16.
+
+  Se´rosh, Sraosha, 82.
+
+  Serto´rius, 307, 308.
+
+  Ser´vilia´nus, 295.
+
+  Ser´vius Tul´lius, 253, 254, 259.
+
+  Sesonchosis, 52.
+
+  Sesorcheres, 52.
+
+  Sesortasen I., II., and III., 54.
+
+  Sesos´tris, 52, 56.
+
+  Ses´tus, 146, 196.
+
+  Seth, 62.
+
+  Se´thos II., 58.
+
+  Se´ti, 56.
+
+  Seve´rus, 338, 347.
+
+  Sex´tius, L., 272, 273.
+
+  Sex´tus, Tarquinius, 255.
+
+  Shalmane´ser, I., 18.
+    II., 19, 22, 31, 41.
+    IV., 20.
+
+  She´chem, 40.
+
+  Shem, 10, 216.
+
+  Shi´loh, 35.
+
+  Shi´shak (Sheshonk), 40, 42, 58.
+
+  Sic´ily, 67, 68, 132, 133, 170-175.
+
+  Sictacho´tes, 87.
+
+  Sic´yon, 122, 193, 208.
+
+  Si´don, 30, 60, 98, 215.
+
+  Sino´pe, 74, 232.
+
+  Sir´mium, 344, 351.
+
+  Smer´dis, the False, 78.
+
+  Soc´rates, 168, 183.
+
+  Sogdia´na, 13, 204, 205.
+
+  Sogdia´nus, 94, 95.
+
+  Sol´omon, 33, 38, 39, 58.
+
+  So´lon, 29, 30, 125-127.
+
+  So´ma, 81, 111.
+
+  Soman´li, 76.
+
+  So´ris, 52.
+
+  Sosib´ius, 219.
+
+  Sos´thenes, 224.
+
+  Spain, 31, 38, 67, 287, 293, 307, 308, 314, 318, 332, 342, 343, 346,
+     350, 354, 356, 357.
+
+  Spar´ta, 29, 90, 95, 97, 107, 109, 115, 118-123, 134-197, 225.
+
+  Spar´tacus, 308, 309.
+
+  Sphacte´ria, 166.
+
+  Spho´drias, 190.
+
+  Spithri´da´tes, 99.
+
+  Stenycle´rus, 122.
+
+  Stil´icho, 355, 356.
+
+  Stolo, C. Licin´ius, 272.
+
+  Stras´bourg, 314, 351.
+
+  Stratoni´ce, 210.
+
+  Stry´nion, 84, 348.
+
+  Sueto´nius, 335.
+
+  Sue´vi, 356.
+
+  Sul´la, L. Cornelius, 301, 304-308.
+
+  Su´nium, 270.
+
+  Su´phis I., Shufu, 52.
+    II., Non-shufu, 52.
+
+  Su´sa, 15, 80, 204, 205.
+
+  Susia´na, 15, 20, 25.
+
+  Su´thul, 300.
+
+  Swit´zerland, 9.
+
+  Syb´aris, 131, 132.
+
+  Sye´ne, 55, 57.
+
+  Sy´ke, 172.
+
+  Syr´acuse, 67, 107, 133, 170-175, 284-291, 303, 310, 318.
+
+  Syr´ia, 15, 20, 25, 31, 33, 58, 93, 209-215, 218, 311, 336, 338, 339.
+
+
+  T
+
+  Ta´chos, 195.
+
+  Tac´itus, emperor, 343.
+    historian, 335.
+
+  Tad´mor, 31.
+
+  Takelot II., 59.
+
+  Tan´agra, 155.
+
+  Ta´nis, 58, 59.
+
+  Taren´tum, Tarentines, 132, 274, 280, 282.
+
+  Tarpe´ia, 250.
+
+  Tarquin´ius, L. Priscus, 252, 253.
+    Superbus, 254.
+
+  Tar´tarus, 112.
+
+  Tartes´sus, 68.
+
+  Tau´rus, 311.
+
+  Tayge´tus, 151.
+
+  Tege´a, Tegeans, 123, 194.
+
+  Telem´achus, 356.
+
+  Tel´esi´nus, 306.
+
+  Tem´enus, 114, 115.
+
+  Ten´edos, 14, 233.
+
+  Ten´tyra, 63.
+
+  Terentil´ius Harsa, 264.
+
+  Teren´tius Varro, 289.
+
+  Tet´ricus, 343.
+
+  Teu´ta, 286.
+
+  Teuto´nes, 302.
+
+  Tibe´rius, 327-330.
+
+  Tibul´lus, 328.
+
+  Tici´nus, 288.
+
+  Tig´lath Pile´ser I., 18, 22.
+    II., 19, 41, 43.
+
+  Tiglathi-nin, 18, 22.
+
+  Tigra´nes, Persian general, 145.
+    of Syria, 215, 233, 313.
+
+  Tigranocer´ta, 235.
+
+  Ti´gris, 10, 14, 15, 18.
+
+  Tim´esith´eus, 341.
+
+  Timo´theus, 191.
+
+  Tir´hakeh, 20, 59.
+
+  Tirida´tes, 346.
+
+  Tir´yns, 106.
+
+  Tir´zah, 40.
+
+  Tisag´oras, 136.
+
+  Tissapher´nes, 95-97.
+
+  Titho´rea, 196.
+
+  Tit´ies, 251.
+
+  Ti´tus, 241, 234.
+
+  Tha´les, 126.
+
+  Thap´sacus, 41.
+
+  Thap´sus, 321.
+
+  Tha´sos, 85, 107, 151, 152, 227.
+
+  Thebes, Thebans, 97, 98, 139, 160, 180, 188-197.
+
+  Themis´tocles, 137-151.
+
+  Theod´oric I., 359.
+    II., 360.
+
+  Theodo´sius, 352-354.
+    I., the Great, 354, 355.
+    II., 357, 358.
+
+  Theram´enes, 181.
+
+  Thermop´ylæ, 90, 139, 196, 212, 227.
+
+  The´seus, 109, 124, 135.
+
+  Thes´piæ, Thespians, 91, 138, 139.
+
+  Thes´saloni´ca, 207, 318.
+
+  Thes´saly, 90, 92, 105, 161, 196, 227.
+
+  This, 51, 53.
+
+  Thoth, king, 51.
+    deity, 64.
+
+  Thoth´mes I., II., III., 53.
+    IV., 56.
+
+  Thrace, Thracians, 57, 83, 151, 161, 163, 168, 230, 341, 346, 348, 350,
+     353, 354.
+
+  Thrasyme´ne, 226, 228, 288, 290.
+
+  Thucyd´ides, 157.
+    historian, 168.
+
+  Thurii, 280, 309.
+
+  Thyr´ea, 167.
+
+  Tiber, 246, 249, 252, 260, 265, 272, 322.
+
+  Tmo´lus, 14.
+
+  Tobi´ah, 94.
+
+  Tol´mides, 155, 157.
+
+  Tom´yris, 73.
+
+  Toro´ne, 168.
+
+  Trais, 132.
+
+  Traja´nus, 335-337.
+
+  Tre´bia, 288.
+
+  Treves, 352.
+
+  Trip´olis, 30.
+
+  Trœze´ne, 91, 157.
+
+  Trœze´nia, 106.
+
+  Troy, 109, 114.
+
+  Tsam´si, 20.
+
+  Tul´lia, 66.
+
+  Tul´lius, Servius, 253, 254, 260.
+
+  Tullus Hostil´ius, 250.
+
+  Tu´nis, 50, 66.
+
+  Tu´rin, 348.
+
+  Tus´culum, 267.
+
+  Tyre, 19, 20, 26, 30-33, 60, 66, 67, 204, 215.
+
+  Tyrtæ´us, 122.
+
+
+  U
+
+  Ulys´ses, 110.
+
+  Um´bria, Umbrians, 246, 248, 277-279, 282.
+
+  U´tica, 50, 66, 294, 321.
+
+
+  V
+
+  Valens, 352, 353.
+
+  Valentinian I., 352, 353.
+    II., 354.
+    III., 358, 359.
+
+  Vad´imon, 280.
+
+  Vale´rian, 342, 343.
+
+  Vale´rius, the Dictator, 226, 275.
+    consul, 267, 268.
+
+  Vandals, 356-360.
+
+  Varinius, 309.
+
+  Varro, Terentius, 289.
+
+  Varus, Qu., 327-328.
+
+  Veien´tians, Veii, 262, 264, 269, 270, 271.
+
+  Venetia, (Venice), 246, 359.
+
+  Venu´sia, 278.
+
+  Vercel´læ, 302, 303.
+
+  Ver´cingeto´rix, 316.
+
+  Vergi´lia, 264.
+
+  Verona, 341, 348, 356.
+
+  Verres, 310.
+
+  Verus, L., 336, 337.
+
+  Vespasian, 332-334.
+
+  Vesta, 257.
+
+  Vesci´ni, 247, 304.
+
+  Vesu´vius, 246, 275, 276, 308, 334.
+
+  Vim´inai Hill, 254.
+
+  Virgil, 249, 328.
+
+  Virgin´ia, 266, 267.
+
+  Virgin´ius, 267.
+
+  Vi´ria´thus, 295.
+
+  Visi-Goths, 353-359.
+
+  Vitellius, 333.
+
+  Vo´lero Publi´lius, 262, 263.
+
+  Volsci, Volscians, 263, 264, 275, 277, 246.
+
+  Volsin´ii, 270.
+
+  Volum´nia, 264.
+
+  Vul´can, 257.
+
+
+  X
+
+  Xan´thippus, 136, 152.
+    Spartan general, 285.
+
+  Xen´ophon, 97, 168.
+
+  Xerxes, 88-92, 137.
+    II., 94.
+
+  Xo´is, 53, 54.
+
+  Xol´tes, 54.
+
+
+  Y
+
+  York, 336, 339, 347.
+
+
+  Z
+
+  Zabi´nes, 214.
+
+  Zacyn´thus, 107, 161, 162, 226.
+
+  Za´gros, 15, 87.
+
+  Zaleu´cus, 132.
+
+  Za´ma, 291.
+
+  Zan´cle, 132.
+
+  Zedeki´ah, 25, 26, 45, 60.
+
+  Zeilas, 231.
+
+  Ze´no, 361.
+
+  Zeno´bia, 343.
+
+  Ze´rah, 58.
+
+  Zeus, 109-113, 123, 194, 255.
+
+  Zidonians, 35.
+
+  Zie´la, 320.
+
+  Zion, 94.
+
+  Zo´an, 58.
+
+  Zopy´rus, 77.
+
+  Zo´roas´ter, 81-83.
+
+FINIS
+
+
+
+
+
+End of Project Gutenberg's A Manual of Ancient History, by M. E. Thalheimer
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A MANUAL OF ANCIENT HISTORY ***
+
+***** This file should be named 56734-0.txt or 56734-0.zip *****
+This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:
+        http://www.gutenberg.org/5/6/7/3/56734/
+
+Produced by Adrian Mastronardi and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was
+produced from images generously made available by The
+Internet Archive/Canadian Libraries)
+
+
+Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will
+be renamed.
+
+Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright
+law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works,
+so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United
+States without permission and without paying copyright
+royalties. Special rules, set forth in the General Terms of Use part
+of this license, apply to copying and distributing Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works to protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm
+concept and trademark. Project Gutenberg is a registered trademark,
+and may not be used if you charge for the eBooks, unless you receive
+specific permission. If you do not charge anything for copies of this
+eBook, complying with the rules is very easy. You may use this eBook
+for nearly any purpose such as creation of derivative works, reports,
+performances and research. They may be modified and printed and given
+away--you may do practically ANYTHING in the United States with eBooks
+not protected by U.S. copyright law. Redistribution is subject to the
+trademark license, especially commercial redistribution.
+
+START: FULL LICENSE
+
+THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE
+PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK
+
+To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free
+distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work
+(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project
+Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full
+Project Gutenberg-tm License available with this file or online at
+www.gutenberg.org/license.
+
+Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works
+
+1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to
+and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property
+(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all
+the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or
+destroy all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your
+possession. If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a
+Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound
+by the terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the
+person or entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph
+1.E.8.
+
+1.B. "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark. It may only be
+used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who
+agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few
+things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works
+even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See
+paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this
+agreement and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic works. See paragraph 1.E below.
+
+1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the
+Foundation" or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection
+of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works. Nearly all the individual
+works in the collection are in the public domain in the United
+States. If an individual work is unprotected by copyright law in the
+United States and you are located in the United States, we do not
+claim a right to prevent you from copying, distributing, performing,
+displaying or creating derivative works based on the work as long as
+all references to Project Gutenberg are removed. Of course, we hope
+that you will support the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting
+free access to electronic works by freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm
+works in compliance with the terms of this agreement for keeping the
+Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with the work. You can easily
+comply with the terms of this agreement by keeping this work in the
+same format with its attached full Project Gutenberg-tm License when
+you share it without charge with others.
+
+1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern
+what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are
+in a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States,
+check the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this
+agreement before downloading, copying, displaying, performing,
+distributing or creating derivative works based on this work or any
+other Project Gutenberg-tm work. The Foundation makes no
+representations concerning the copyright status of any work in any
+country outside the United States.
+
+1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg:
+
+1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other
+immediate access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear
+prominently whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work
+on which the phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the
+phrase "Project Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed,
+performed, viewed, copied or distributed:
+
+  This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and
+  most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no
+  restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it
+  under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this
+  eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the
+  United States, you'll have to check the laws of the country where you
+  are located before using this ebook.
+
+1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is
+derived from texts not protected by U.S. copyright law (does not
+contain a notice indicating that it is posted with permission of the
+copyright holder), the work can be copied and distributed to anyone in
+the United States without paying any fees or charges. If you are
+redistributing or providing access to a work with the phrase "Project
+Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the work, you must comply
+either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 or
+obtain permission for the use of the work and the Project Gutenberg-tm
+trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.
+
+1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted
+with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution
+must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any
+additional terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms
+will be linked to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works
+posted with the permission of the copyright holder found at the
+beginning of this work.
+
+1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this
+work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm.
+
+1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this
+electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without
+prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with
+active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm License.
+
+1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary,
+compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including
+any word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access
+to or distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format
+other than "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official
+version posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site
+(www.gutenberg.org), you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense
+to the user, provide a copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means
+of obtaining a copy upon request, of the work in its original "Plain
+Vanilla ASCII" or other form. Any alternate format must include the
+full Project Gutenberg-tm License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1.
+
+1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying,
+performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works
+unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.
+
+1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing
+access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works
+provided that
+
+* You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from
+  the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method
+  you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is owed
+  to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he has
+  agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the Project
+  Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments must be paid
+  within 60 days following each date on which you prepare (or are
+  legally required to prepare) your periodic tax returns. Royalty
+  payments should be clearly marked as such and sent to the Project
+  Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the address specified in
+  Section 4, "Information about donations to the Project Gutenberg
+  Literary Archive Foundation."
+
+* You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies
+  you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he
+  does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+  License. You must require such a user to return or destroy all
+  copies of the works possessed in a physical medium and discontinue
+  all use of and all access to other copies of Project Gutenberg-tm
+  works.
+
+* You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of
+  any money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the
+  electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days of
+  receipt of the work.
+
+* You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free
+  distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works.
+
+1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work or group of works on different terms than
+are set forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing
+from both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and The
+Project Gutenberg Trademark LLC, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm
+trademark. Contact the Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below.
+
+1.F.
+
+1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable
+effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread
+works not protected by U.S. copyright law in creating the Project
+Gutenberg-tm collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may
+contain "Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate
+or corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other
+intellectual property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or
+other medium, a computer virus, or computer codes that damage or
+cannot be read by your equipment.
+
+1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right
+of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all
+liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal
+fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT
+LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE
+PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE
+TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE
+LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR
+INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH
+DAMAGE.
+
+1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a
+defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can
+receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a
+written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you
+received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium
+with your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you
+with the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in
+lieu of a refund. If you received the work electronically, the person
+or entity providing it to you may choose to give you a second
+opportunity to receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If
+the second copy is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing
+without further opportunities to fix the problem.
+
+1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth
+in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS', WITH NO
+OTHER WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT
+LIMITED TO WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE.
+
+1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied
+warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of
+damages. If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement
+violates the law of the state applicable to this agreement, the
+agreement shall be interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or
+limitation permitted by the applicable state law. The invalidity or
+unenforceability of any provision of this agreement shall not void the
+remaining provisions.
+
+1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the
+trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone
+providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in
+accordance with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the
+production, promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic works, harmless from all liability, costs and expenses,
+including legal fees, that arise directly or indirectly from any of
+the following which you do or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this
+or any Project Gutenberg-tm work, (b) alteration, modification, or
+additions or deletions to any Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any
+Defect you cause.
+
+Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of
+electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of
+computers including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It
+exists because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations
+from people in all walks of life.
+
+Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the
+assistance they need are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's
+goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will
+remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure
+and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future
+generations. To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary
+Archive Foundation and how your efforts and donations can help, see
+Sections 3 and 4 and the Foundation information page at
+www.gutenberg.org Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg
+Literary Archive Foundation
+
+The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit
+501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the
+state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal
+Revenue Service. The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification
+number is 64-6221541. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg Literary
+Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent permitted by
+U.S. federal laws and your state's laws.
+
+The Foundation's principal office is in Fairbanks, Alaska, with the
+mailing address: PO Box 750175, Fairbanks, AK 99775, but its
+volunteers and employees are scattered throughout numerous
+locations. Its business office is located at 809 North 1500 West, Salt
+Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887. Email contact links and up to
+date contact information can be found at the Foundation's web site and
+official page at www.gutenberg.org/contact
+
+For additional contact information:
+
+    Dr. Gregory B. Newby
+    Chief Executive and Director
+    gbnewby@pglaf.org
+
+Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg
+Literary Archive Foundation
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide
+spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of
+increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be
+freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest
+array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations
+($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt
+status with the IRS.
+
+The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating
+charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United
+States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a
+considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up
+with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations
+where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To SEND
+DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any particular
+state visit www.gutenberg.org/donate
+
+While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we
+have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition
+against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who
+approach us with offers to donate.
+
+International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make
+any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from
+outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff.
+
+Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation
+methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other
+ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations. To
+donate, please visit: www.gutenberg.org/donate
+
+Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works.
+
+Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm concept of a library of electronic works that could be
+freely shared with anyone. For forty years, he produced and
+distributed Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of
+volunteer support.
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed
+editions, all of which are confirmed as not protected by copyright in
+the U.S. unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not
+necessarily keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper
+edition.
+
+Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search
+facility: www.gutenberg.org
+
+This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm,
+including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary
+Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to
+subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks.
+
diff --git a/src/main/resources/someTextFile.txt b/src/main/resources/someTextFile.txt
index e69de29..e9c3644 100644
--- a/src/main/resources/someTextFile.txt
+++ b/src/main/resources/someTextFile.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,2 @@
+I am a zip coder
+a zip coder love code
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/src/test/java/io/zipcoder/ParenCheckerTest.java b/src/test/java/io/zipcoder/ParenCheckerTest.java
index 76aa3b6..209d3d5 100644
--- a/src/test/java/io/zipcoder/ParenCheckerTest.java
+++ b/src/test/java/io/zipcoder/ParenCheckerTest.java
@@ -3,6 +3,55 @@
 import org.junit.Assert;
 import org.junit.Test;
 
-public class ParenCheckerTest {
+public class ParenCheckerTest
+{
+    @Test
+    public void parenPairTest1()
+    {
+        ParenChecker parenChecker = new ParenChecker();
+        String input = "()()";
+        Assert.assertTrue(parenChecker.parenPair(input));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void parenPairTest2()
+    {
+        ParenChecker parenChecker = new ParenChecker();
+        String input = "()()(";
+        Assert.assertFalse(parenChecker.parenPair(input));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void anyPairTest1()
+    {
+        ParenChecker parenChecker = new ParenChecker();
+        String input = "()<>";
+        Assert.assertTrue(parenChecker.anyPair(input));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void anyPairTest2()
+    {
+        ParenChecker parenChecker = new ParenChecker();
+        String input = "()[{]}<";
+        Assert.assertFalse(parenChecker.anyPair(input));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void containsPairTest1()
+    {
+        ParenChecker parenChecker = new ParenChecker();
+        String input = "{}";
+        Assert.assertTrue(parenChecker.containsPair(input, '{', '}'));
+
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void containsPairTest2()
+    {
+        ParenChecker parenChecker = new ParenChecker();
+        String input = "<>";
+        Assert.assertTrue(parenChecker.containsPair(input, '<', '>'));
+    }
 
 }
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/src/test/java/io/zipcoder/WCTest.java b/src/test/java/io/zipcoder/WCTest.java
index 895e831..3f6c529 100644
--- a/src/test/java/io/zipcoder/WCTest.java
+++ b/src/test/java/io/zipcoder/WCTest.java
@@ -6,6 +6,29 @@
 import java.util.ArrayList;
 import java.util.Arrays;
 
-public class WCTest {
+public class WCTest
+{
+    @Test
+    public void generateHashMapTest1()
+    {
+        WC test = new WC(WC.class.getResource("/someTextFile.txt").getFile());
+
+        test.generateLinkedHashMap();
+        test.printLinkedHashMap();
+
+        System.out.println(test.printLinkedHashMap());
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void generateHashMapTest2()
+    {
+        WC test = new WC(WC.class.getResource("/56734-0.txt").getFile());
+
+        test.generateLinkedHashMap();
+        test.printLinkedHashMap();
+
+        System.out.println(test.printLinkedHashMap());
+    }
+
 
 }
\ No newline at end of file